abstruse: the old importations from French have had time to take on to a great extent the qualities of the native vocables; the later words are present as giving equivalent names, as making necessary provision for expressing the increased range of objects and actions, and as meeting the demand for elevation and for greater exactness, particularly in the technicalities of special subjects.

Generally, then, while the simple native terms are more widely intelligible and pathetic, the abstruse classical terms give the power of nice discrimination or precision in science, dignity or elevation of sentiment, and the pomp and circumstance of oratory.

Advanced pupils will note any exceptions to the general rule; beginners, or such as have purely practical aims, hardly need be troubled with the historical distinction.

549. GENERALITY of meaning increases as we pass from the individual name onwards to the abstract name, from the name of a single object or action to the name of the point of community among all like objects and actions.

The individual name is apprehended at once, without difficulty. Classes, collections of concrete individuals more or less like each other, greatly vary in generality; and the more general they are, the less easily are they understood. The abstract noun is farthest removed from simplicity; it is the crowning abstruseness of language.

550. In regard to PHRASE and CLAUSE expressions, as compared with each other and with SINGLE WORDS, it is soon discovered that the shortest form is not necessarily the simplest. Rather indeed, putting aside the commonest cases, one might assert in general terms that the longer expression is the simpler.

Many of the shorter forms come from the longer forms by ellipsis or condensation. Naturally the meaning is easy to understand when given in a full explicit statement; whereas there is more or less difficulty imposed upon the hearer or reader when he has to fill out the condensed statement for himself, and that too in shorter time. For the desirable end of securing brevity and simplicity together, recourse must be had to the more familiar modes; and one very powerful means is the judicious use of the most common and best understood Prefixes and Suffixes.

551. Notwithstanding the hopelessness inspired by an endless list of bare PREFIXES and SUFFIXES, very great practical command of these might soon be gained without any unpleasantness.

First of all, the most frequently recurring instances might be considered one by one. They might be studied in order so as to fall into groups according to meaning: there might be taken together, for example, such as express the very important meaning of negation; such as express (in Nouns) quality, state, or condition; diminution, in its various phases; agents, and actions; (in Adjectives) presence or absence of qualities; and so on. The chief meanings of these familiar prefixes and suffixes would be thoroughly learned, to begin with; the secondary meanings being reserved, to be taken in at the proper times. The prefixes and suffixes that are of no living importance or that occur but rarely, may be left over to a much later stage.

Side by side with Prefixes and Suffixes may be studied the chief cases where independent words unite to form a Compound word. A very prominent quality of such Compounds is the great condensation of meaning.

552. The simple parts of the vocabulary are very largely employed in POETRY.

The pupil is accordingly encouraged to read extensively in poetical works, so as to gain increased familiarity with terms that are easily and widely understood. He may disregard the danger of being misled by 'poetical licences.'

553. The PURITY of the language has much to dread from the loose admission of foreign words, chiefly French and Latin.

When such names designate new objects or operations or shades of meaning not provided for in English, they are doubtless perfectly admissible, and indeed advantageous. But even when they seem to promise advantage, they should be thoroughly scrutinized before adoption. The tendency to the indiscriminate use of them is excessive, and that for various reasons. pupil will do well to avoid them one and all.

The

Equally to be avoided are native impurities, such as Provincialisms and Slang.

554. In the examples immediately following, and in the Extracts of next Chapter, there is afforded abundant scope for very multifarious drill. The

main general purpose is the comparison, for practical ends, of the Simple and the Abstruse, whether in vocabulary or in structure.

Exceedingly simple passages will be found capable of still further simplification, and variously abstruse passages may be reduced to more general comprehension. Native and classical expressions are to be weighed together, with a view to an estimate of their respective merits and demerits in particular cases : sometimes both modes exist for giving the same meaning, sometimes there is general agreement with partial difference of meaning, and not unfrequently the native or the classical term stands alone-there being no alternative mode of expression, or only a complex one. Degrees of generality may be compared as degrees of abstruseness: the abstract term claiming the chief attention. Longer and shorter forms are to be considered together as adding to or taking from the simplicity of language, as well as on other grounds: prefixes and suffixes, also words compounded of independent names, being reckoned as great aids to shortness. Foreign terms will mostly be thrust forth. Finally, in the general result, and for ordinary purposes, one may endeavour to rise above the meagreness, churlishness, poverty, humility, homeliness of a too exclusively native vocabulary, without assuming the dignity and magnificence, or the florid, overgrown, unwieldy pomposity and grandiloquence, of a largely classical diction.

EXERCISE 454.

The expression may be made simpler. No change of structure is needed.

1. Liberty is dear to all. 2. He was indisposed. 3. We desire to manifest our gratitude. 4. Why speak of everybody disparagingly? 5. This is intolerable. 6. His faults are sufficiently glaring. 7. The land is unproductive. 8. Mental strength is better than corporeal strength. 9. From the Atlantic to the vicinity of the Rhine, the Latin has, during many centuries, been predominant. 10. The temple, which was situated on the summit of the mountain, had a circular form. 11. We commence operations presently. 12. Here is a superior educational establishment. 13. The Agricultural Association meets to-day. 14. John has got a box of horticultural implements. 15. He vacated the chair. 16. They will not violate their promise. 17. I homologate these assertions. 18. He was executed on account of his participation in the projected insurrection. 19. The recent injuries that he had received from the Scots, had irritated him extremely against that nation. 20. He executed justice with impartiality and rigour; but as he supported the commonalty and the church against the rapine of the nobility, he escaped not the hatred of that order.

EXERCISE 455.

For simpler expression, there is generally needed change of phrase or of structure. 1. Charles V. was troubled with chronic cutaneous eruptions. 2. The prince is convalescent under favourable auspices. 3. The prohibition against the exportation of rice has been removed. 4. Your orthography is susceptible of improvement. 5. His refusal to put into harbour may be productive of very serious consequences. 6. Corruption wins not more than honesty. 7. The higher the temperature of the air, the greater its capacity for containing moisture. 8. Imprisonment follows immediately on conviction. 9. He did not express his intentions at great length. 10. It was impossible for him on that occasion to maintain an erect position. 11. I confidently trust that our exertions will bring about the complete extinction of a traffic equally repugnant to humanity and injurious to legitimate commerce. 12. The suspicion that the refusal to meddle with international law is prompted by hostility or by jealousy of Russian progress in Central Asia is an utter delusion. 13. He replied that his country had not adopted the principle of compulsory service of the whole population, and that he could not consent to proposals which might practically render such a measure obligatory. 14. Owing to dyspepsia afflicting my system, and the possibilities of any additional disarrangement of the stomach taking place, consequences incalculably distressing would arise; so much so, indeed, as to increase nervous irritation, and prevent me from attending to matters of overwhelming importance, if you do not remember to cut the mutton in a diagonal rather than in a longitudinal form.

EXERCISE 456.

The pupil will try to substitute native for foreign terms, with a view to deciding how far these are necessary or useful.

1. Every institution is called upon for its raison d'être. 2. That might endanger our prestige. 3. Quote the passage in extenso. 3. They distribute such books gratis. 5. Everybody seemed on the qui vive. 6. The party had a splendid déjeuner. 7. Nature does not proceed per saltum. 8. They were all bond fide transactions. 9. We brought home many interesting souvenirs of our visit. 10. A little more esprit de corps would not be amiss. 11. He added this sotto voce. 12. These are ex parte statements. 13. They gave him carte blanche. 14. The scheme remains in statu quo. 15. A good presence is a sine quâ non. 16. Then there ensued a general suave qui peut. 16. Soon after the enfans perdus retreated helter-skelter. 18. On his political début he assumed the role of working-man's candidate. 19. Their fate is likely enough to serve pour encourager les autres. 20. The book can be regarded only as mémoires pour servir, 21. Consult the statute: quart., I think, it is Edwardi sext. or prim. et quint. Eliz.

CHAPTER XX.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXTRACTS.

555. The proportion of Simple and Abstruse or easy and difficult expression is best set forth in a continuous passage.

Isolated sentences, selected for simplification, cannot be taken as fair examples. In actual composition, a very difficult sentence may be followed by one that is very simple. There is variety, to some extent at least, in all writers and in all subjects. It is intended, therefore, to give a series of Extracts, of various length, and from various authors, in general exemplification of the qualities--Simplicity and Abstruseness. Longer and more varied passages would be still more effective in bringing out the proportion.

The Extracts are roughly arranged in general order of difficulty. Chronological order is less suitable to the present purpose.

Some familiar prose works famed for simplicity may be referred to, not quoted from here: the Bible, Bunyan ('The Pilgrim's Progress'), Defoe ('Robinson Crusoe'), &c. I do not quote from the Poets.

The various points to be taken up have been remarked upon individually in the preceding Chapter. They are recapitulated in § 554.

556. Even where a latinized vocabulary cannot very satisfactorily be replaced by native words, Simplicity may be gained by change of form.

For instance, the following passage may be rendered more simple by mere avoidance of abstractions, without any regard to Saxonizing:

'Johnson says that Boileau's profession of regard for Addison's Latin poems was probably the effect of his civility rather than approbation.'

More simply expressed thus: Johnson says it is probable that Boileau professed to think well of Addison's Latin poems rather because he wished to be civil than because he approved of them.'