of relation. It is of the highest importance, therefore, that the writer have the ability, and, what is equally important, the habit, of estimating closely, in every instance, the kind and degree of their influence.

The following are the principal kinds of conjunctional relation, determined according to their rhetorical significance.

Coordinating. It is the office of these conjunctions to “add a new statement having the same bearing as what preceded."

LIST.-The great representative of these conjunctions is AND. The others are: also, yea, likewise, so, in like manner, again, besides, too (following another word), further, moreover, furthermore, add to this (add to which). Now is an old-fashioned connective used to introduce a statement not closely connected with the preceding.

39. By the coördinating sense is meant that these conjunctions continue the thought in the same direction and the same rank. The varieties of coördination within these limits are determined by the adverbial implication of the conjunction.

NOTE. It is to be noted that conjunctions are mostly derived from adverbs, and may present all stages of use, from almost purely adverbial to almost purely connective; or may be used on occasion either as one part of speech or the other. Care is needed, for instance, in the use of such a word as now," which at the beginning of a sentence is most naturally understood as a connective: if therefore a temporal relation is meant, it needs to be represented by such a phrase as "At this time," or "At present."

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40. A thought moving in the same direction needs often to be intensified in succeeding members, in order that better progress and climax may be secured. Connectives that also intensify are sometimes called cumulative, from the Latin cumulus, a heap.

NOTE. We see this cumulative force in such connectives as: more than this, especially, in greater degree, all the more, much more, after all.

Lack of cumulation is exemplified in the following: "But anything is better than pedantry displaying itself in verse, and in connection with the name of Homer." As it stands, the second member is insignificant: we expect some such connective as, "and especially in connection with the name of Homer "

Subordinating. These introduce a clause, or less frequently a sentence, that is dependent on, or in some way inferior in distinction to a principal. They suggest conditions, limitations, exceptions, accompaniments of time, place, and manner, and the like.

LIST.-If, provided; though, although, whereas, inasmuch as, unless, save, except; when, while; for, because; that, in order that.

41. What should be made subordinate and what principal, is not always easy to determine; indeed, the art of subordination is one of the most delicate and difficult in the writer's province. He needs therefore, for the sake of precision, to give minute and habitual study to the relative importance of his statements, and arrange or construct them accordingly.

ILLUSTRATIONS.-Imperfect subordination of ideas is shown in the following: "Henry V. was one of those few young men who give up their youth to carousal and folly, with the resolve that, when they are older, they will settle down to a steadier life, and who succeed in carrying out their better purpose." Here the two statements cannot equally be made of "few young men"; indeed, it is only the latter that can rightly be predicated of them. The first clause ought therefore to be so subordinated in structure as to be obviously preparatory for the second; thus: "Henry V. was one of those few young men who, having given up... with the resolve that, etc., actually succeed in carrying out their better purpose."

The following sentence appears in King James's version of the New Testament: "But God be thanked that ye were the servants of sin, but ye have obeyed from the heart that form of doctrine which was delivered you." Here it is evident that the thanks are due not for what is said in the first clause but only for the fact mentioned in the second. The makers of the Revised Version, recognizing this, subordinate thus: "But thanks be to God, that, whereas ye were servants of sin, ye became obedient from the heart to that form of teaching whereunto ye were delivered."

42. If the form of the conditional clause is used, it should express a real condition, and the kind of condition intended. This ought to go without saying; but a tendency of rapid writers now-a-days to use the conditioning particle as a mere convenience for grouping loosely connected ideas, makes the caution necessary.

EXAMPLE. The following is quoted from a leading newspaper: —

"The spectacle of the opening night was very brilliant, and the good feel. ing unmistakable. If the beginning is favored by fashion, and if fashion is proverbially fickle, and if mere national feeling and pride cannot sustain such an enterprise permanently, it is to be remembered that it is not upon such supports that the American opera relies."

Here it seems at first sight that the relation expressed by though would come nearer the sense intended; but a substitution of that particle for the ifs reveals the fact that the subordinated clauses are after all not real conditions of the principal. The passage can be remedied only by recast.

43. Subordination by means of a conjunction may be augmented, that is, the subordinate clause made less emphatic, by condensed structure (See Condensation) where occasion permits, and by inconspicuous position of the subordinated clause. The opposite means are relied on for making the condition emphatic.

EXAMPLES. Note the difference in emphasis between the conditional clauses in the following examples.. "Even so faith, if it hath not works, is dead, being alone." Here the if-clause attracts comparatively little attention, being buried in the sentence. Compare now the following:

"But now farewell. I am going a long way

With these thou seëst - if indeed I go

(For all my mind is clouded with a doubt)
To the island-valley of Avilion."

Here the if-clause has an emphatic place, being after the principal assertion; and the condition is made distinctive by the word "indeed," and the parenthesis following.

The subordinating particle though may be removed from the beginning of its clause, when there is occasion to make the clause emphatic; for example:

"My spirit longs for thee

Within my troubled breast;
Unworthy though I be

Of so divine a guest."

Compare for emphasis, " Though this be madness, yet there is method in't."

44. Subordination inside of a clause already subordinate requires careful management. A second subordinate clause, if introduced by the same conjunction as the preceding, is in danger of being counted as coördinate with, instead of subordinate to, the other.

EXAMPLES.

If the man will make full restitution of the stolen goods, if he is honest in his expressed purpose to lead a better life, he may be pardoned." Here the subordination would be better effected by another conjunction: "provided indeed he is honest," etc. Notice how this aids the relation of the clauses. - The particle provided would be, perhaps, too prosaic for poetry; but notice the following:

"But thou-if thou wilt seek earnestly unto God,

And make supplication unto the Almighty,—

So be that thou art pure and upright,

Verily then He will awake for thee,

And will restore the habitation of thy righteousness."

Here the second subordination is made consistently with the poetic nature of the passage.

Adversative. - These introduce a new statement contrary in some respect to the preceding, — either as limiting, or as arresting a seeming inference from it.

LIST.—The representative of adversative particles is BUT. Others are: still, yet, however, only, nevertheless, notwithstanding, at the same time, for all that, after all.

The word whereas may have either a subordinating or adversative sense; or it may combine the two.

45. When the word but is used to arrest a seeming inference from the preceding and turn the thought in opposite direction, be sure that such inference is natural, and that the added idea is some way antithetic; in other words, that the adversative relation is real.

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EXAMPLES. In the sentence "He is poor, but proud," the antithesis of "proud" to "poor" is real, because it is natural to infer that a poor man would be humble. Compare, however, the following: "Luther's character was emotional and dogmatic, but exceedingly courageous." Here "courage" does not arrest any natural inference from the preceding; on the contrary it seems to supply a thought in the same direction, and the but has no real adversative office. And would be more accurate. Or if we were to take as the inference that Luther, being emotional and dogmatic, was nothing else, we could say, "Luther's character was emotional and dogmatic, but also exceedingly courageous."

46. The adversative relation is susceptible of various degrees. The strongest adversative, but, when used exclusively, as it often is by unskilled writers, gives a certain hardness and lack of shade to the style, which might be relieved by the more frequent use of softened adversatives, such as however, yet, while, whereas, which make the relation less obtrusive.

EXAMPLES. -The effect of the exclusive use of but adversative can be shown only by an extended passage; here an example may be adduced showing how it may be used where the relation requires a softened degree. "This society was founded in 1817, since which time it has done a truly noble work in aiding needy applicants for help. But at present the churches seem little disposed to support it." Here the word but is too abrupt and strong; better: "At present, however, the churches seem little disposed to support it."

In the following sentence an accumulation of buts is prevented by while, which in its place is a strong enough adversative: "Now to him that worketh is the reward not reckoned of grace but of debt; while (instead of but) to him that worketh not but believeth on him that justifieth the ungodly, his faith is counted for righteousness."

Illative.

These conjunctions (name derived from Latin illatum, in-ferre) indicate inference, effect, or consequence.

LIST.-Therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, accordingly, thus, so, then, so then.

47. The kind of inference, as indicated by the adverbial force of the conjunction, is a matter requiring accurate thought, and too often left loose. The word thus, for instance, is sometimes made to do duty in a variety of relations, where therefore, or accordingly, or consequently would be more exact.

EXAMPLE.

Thus,

"Two emotions were paramount in his eager desire: hope that he might perform the task more thoroughly than had any of his predecessors, and fear lest in any part of it he should fall below his ideal. being so powerfully impelled, he soon distanced all competitors." "thus," which properly means "in this manner," does not express the exact nature of the sequence, and is all the more confusing for being very near the meaning. The word accordingly would seem to be more accurate.

Here