26. There are certain definable cases where who or which are the only available relatives, as well for restriction as for coördination. It is not meant that in these cases there is no restrictive or coördinate sense present, but that the discrimination of that sense by the form of the relative is waived because other considerations, of euphony or clearness, are stronger. The reader is left, in other words, to make for himself the proper adjustment in the function of the relative.

THE PRINCIPAL CASES OF THis Kind enumERATED AND EXEMPLIFIED. — The following are the chief exceptions to the strict discriminative use of the relative. The reasons for them may be reduced to the two considerations of Euphony and Clearness.

1. Who or which is often used to avoid an accumulation of thats, e.g. When the antecedent is that: "It is that which I detest ";

When the antecedent is modified by that: "That remark which I made yesterday";

When a conjunctive that occurs near: "And there can be found other passages which show that it was a common and popular custom." In all these cases the meaning of the relative is restrictive, but euphony compels the change. How obtrusive a series of thats may sound is illustrated in the following, from De Quincey, “Egypt was the land that sheltered the wretches that represented the ancestors that had done the wrong."

2. That sounds ill when separated from its verb and from its antecedents, and emphasized by isolation: There are many persons that, though unscrupulous, are commonly good tempered, and that, if not strongly incited by selfinterest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest of their neighbors." Here who would be better.

3. That cannot be preceded by a preposition, and hence throws the preposition to the end. The following is an extreme example: "It seemed to be one of those facts of existence that she could not get used to, nor find anywhere in her brisk, fiery little body a grain of cool resignation for." Not all prepositions will bear thus to stand at the end, and especially long prepositions, or prepositions that may also be adverbs. As matters of fact the liberty is confined mostly to the prepositions to, for, of, and by. We can say "This is the rule that I adhere to," but not so well "This is the mark that I jumped beyond," or, "Such were the prejudices that he rose above." And when these prepositions are put in the body of the sentence, which is required as the relative, though with restrictive sense.

II. CLEARNESS.

4. That applies to both persons and things, and hence may be somewhat vague when the antecedent does not express which is meant. In such a case, though the sense is restrictive, who may sometimes be used for the sake of pointing out the person. For example: "There are many millions in India who would be utterly unable to pay a fine of fifty rupees," etc. If in this case the antecedent were clear, the restrictive relative would naturally be used; as, "There are many millions of persons in India that," etc.

It is for the sake of clearness as to distinction of person that pronominal adjectives used as personal pronouns are followed by who: as, "There are many, others, several, those, who," etc. Also "all who," "every one who," etc.; but when things are meant, not "all which," "much which," etc., but "all that," "much that."

27. There is such frequent occasion to use the relative, and it is so apt, when occurring often, to make the sentence move heavily and cumbrously, that a mastery of the equivalents for the relative is very important to the writer. These equivalents may be sought for various purposes.

EQUIVALENTS FOR RELATIVE ENUMERATED AND EXEMPLIFIED. The following are the commonest, classified according to the object sought in their

use.

I. FOR RAPIDITY.

1. It is to be noted that, of the two relatives, the restrictive is the more rapid; and a slow-moving construction may often be considerably lightened by recasting so as to employ a restrictive instead of a coördinate clause. This is especially desirable when a relative occurs within a relative. For example: "This curious design I bought of a nun in France, who passed years of toil upon the conceit, which is of more value than the material." Here the construction is a little cumbrous; but notice the greater lightness and rapidity of, "who passed years of toil upon a conceit that is of more value than the material."

2. The relative may often be condensed by being combined, in the same word, with a preposition, or with the antecedent.

Thus, wherein, whereby may be used for in which, by which: "Great virtues often save, and always illustrate, the age and nation wherein they appear."

"Yet all experience is an arch wherethro'

Gleams that untravell'd world, whose margin fades

For ever and for ever when I move."

What is a useful equivalent for that which, those which: "Let me repeat to you what I have often said, that what is worth doing at all is worth doing well."

3. The relative that may be omitted to advantage, when it is the object of a verb, and when the omission brings the antecedent and the relative clause in juxtaposition; for example, "The man I spoke of," is better than "The man that I spoke of." "Dickens's acting was a part of himself. He threw himself thoroughly into the character he was impersonating, and thus made it real." Here the relative is better omitted than expressed.

When, however, the antecedent and the relative clause are not brought into juxtaposition thereby, the relative will not so well bear omission. Example: "As for actresses, it surely would be the height of ungenerosity to blame a woman for following the only regular profession commanding fame and fortune the kind consideration of man has left open to her." Here the phrase "commanding fame and fortune," between the antecedent and the relative clause, disturbs the reference, and the relative ought to be retained.

For omission of the relative in Poetic Diction, see preceding, page 51.

II. FOR EMPHASIS.

4. Sometimes, instead of the coördinating relative, a demonstrative with a conjunction will better emphasize the subject of its clause; for example: “He did his best, which was all that could be expected," is not so strong as, "He did his best; and this was all that could be expected."

5. A negative statement may sometimes be much strengthened by employing the word but as a relative; for example: "There is no moral rule but bends to circumstances," is stronger than, "There is no moral rule that does not bend to circumstances."

"There's not a one of them but in his house

I keep a servant fee'd," —

instead of "in whose house I do not keep a servant fee'd."

III. FOR VARIATION OF EXPRESSION.

This is an important consideration in itself, when there is danger of accumulating too many relatives.

6. A participle may often be used instead of the restrictive relative with a verb; for example: "We shall briefly run over the events attending the conquest made by that empire," is much better than "that attended” and "that was made." This construction has advantage also on the score of rapidity.

7. In some cases the infinitive makes a convenient equivalent for the relative; for example: "He was the first to enter," instead of "He was the first that entered."

8. Sometimes also a conditional or if-clause may enable the writer to do away with an obtrusive relative; for example: “The man that does not care for music is to be pitied," can be written (though not so forcibly) “If a man does not care for music, he is to be pitied." It is in long sentences that this equivalent will be found most useful.1

Recognition of the Nature of the Antecedent. When reference is made to a preceding idea, the referring clause should by its form or fullness, furnish an accurate recognition, as well logical as grammatical, of the word or idea referred to.

28. And perhaps the most frequent question is, whether reference is to be made to a thing or a fact; that is, whether the grammatical antecedent is a word or a clause. When the antecedent is a clause, it must generally be referred to by more than a mere pronominal word; a defining word must be added to broaden the reference.

EXAMPLES. "When an American book is republished in England, it is heralded as a noteworthy event in literature." Here it is not the book that is heralded but the fact that it is republished; hence the form of reference should be, "the fact is heralded," or "the event is heralded as noteworthy in literature."

The more definite demonstratives this and that are better adapted than others to refer to a fact; for example: "It was not possible to break the enemy's line without running on board one of their ships. Hardy informed Nelson of this." But here also, the writer must guard against insufficient or ambiguous reference.

29. Equal care must be given in naming an antecedent, to discriminate the exact character or aspect of it for the writer's purpose. A special tendency to inaccuracy in this respect is often seen in the use of such phrases as "in this way," "of this sort," and the like.

EXAMPLES. 1. Of misnamed antecedent. "When a recognized organization places itself in opposition to what the people regard as their right, it endangers its own existence; and a continuation of this course of action is almost

1 In the paragraphs on Coördination and Restriction of the Antecedent, much help has been derived, both in examples and suggestions, from Abbott's "How to Write Clearly," pp. 17-19, and Bain's "Composition Grammar,” pp. 63-85.

sure to cause its overthrow." Here what has been mentioned is not a course of action, but an attitude; "this attitude" would therefore be a more exact reference.

2. Of inaccurate phrasal reference. 'God, foreseeing the disorders of human nature, has given us certain passions and affections which arise from, or whose objects are, these disorders. Of this sort are fear, resentment, compassion." Here the thing referred to is not a sort, and is not rightly called such. Better: "Among these are," etc.

30. There are cases, however, where it is desirable to make the reference a little vague, or rather, more general than the antecedent; for sometimes the antecedent needs to be treated as one of a class, or otherwise broadened, in order rightly to serve the writer's purpose in referring to it.

EXAMPLES. - Notice the difference in sense between this and such in the following example, already quoted: "When a recognized organization places itself in opposition to what the people regard as their rights, it endangers its own existence; and a continuation of such an attitude (this attitude) is almost sure to cause its overthrow." The word such draws attention not to the particular deed, but to the kind of deed. —“It may be well to make brief mention of Lawrence Sheriff, the founder of the school, that some of its early history may through that be portrayed." Here the word that refers most directly to "mention," and the reference is too definite. Better: "may thereby be portrayed," — the reference being thus to the fact of making

mention.

IV. PROSPECTIVE REFERENCE.

This term designates the office of any word of reference, pronominal or other, when the word or idea for which it stands is yet to be expressed.

Prospective it and there. The idioms it is and there is (or there are), beginning a sentence or clause, are the commonest forms of prospective reference, and are especially valuable as a means of enabling the writer to gain emphasis by inverting the grammatical order of subject and predicate. Introduced first, these words stand provisionally for the actual subject; while the latter, thus free to choose its position, may be placed where it will have the greatest distinction.