School-inspector Gen. Pisani has recently published a book on the Italian schools which is designed to show what progress public education has made during recent years in Italy. The number of elementary pupils in 1889-90 was 2,102,615 (or 1,094,467 boys and 1,008,148 girls); this is an increase of 55,000 over the previous year. Of the sum total, 1,966,988 pupils were in public schools, 135,627 in private schools. The number of classes in the public schools was 78,675, hence the average number of pupils per class room was 25. The private schools had 8,791 classes, which is an average of 15 pupils per class room. The number of teachers, however, is not equal to the number of classes; it is only 41,336 for public and 5,063 for private schools. The number of teachers shows an increase of 1,500 over the previous year. It is evident that most of the teachers teach two classes a day. The hygienic conditions of the schools and the school furniture are said to be anything but satisfactory. The teachers are not well prepared for their profession and their standing in society is very inferior. The communal authorities are said to be irregular in paying their teachers. A law is being prepared which will protect the teachers from arbitrary action on the part of the local authorities, and securing the payment of a minimum salary by the state.

Japan.-The house of representatives in the new diet of Japan is extremely anxious to cut down the budget, and a conflict is imminent between it and the government on this subject. Its proposals are sweeping, and if carried out would cause no little consternation in the education department. The grant for schools would be reduced from $800,000 to about half that sum. Some five years since the late Viscount Mori, who perished by an assassin's knife on the day of the declaration of the constitution, just two years ago, established five great secondary schools in different centers throughout the Empire, to act as feeders for the university and to serve as a check on the growing congestion of students in the capital. These institutions are specially threatened by the parliamentary reformers, many of whom hold Spencerian views and dislike government control in education. Generally speaking, this is a critical time for education in Japan. The rising generation is growing up without those habits of instinctive obedience and reverence which characterized the previous civilization, and the capable teachers are all young and comparatively untried men. The question how to preserve sound morality and discipline in the schools is causing grave concern at headquarters. There is a conservative government at full flow just now; the demand for foreigners as teachers is at ebb, the schools in most cases preferring Japanese who can help them to translate. Foreigners have never been so unpopular since the great revolution.

There is a troublesome class in the capital known as soshi, a word which is difficult to translate so as to convey an adequate meaning. They are not students, though so described sometimes, but rather political unattached meddlers who would right all wrongs by use of the sword, sticks, and bombs. They profess to be intense patriots, and are certainly in many cases reckless of their lives and most deliberate in carrying out their plans. The only school in which anything of the soshi spirit has appeared is the secondary school of Tokio, some of the students in which have once or twice disgraced themselves. (London Journal of Education.)

Mexico.-The Pædagogium (Dresden and Vienna) of March, 1891, contains an interesting account of recent educational movements in our neighbor republic, written by a resident, whose name is withheld by the editor, Dr. F. Dittes.

For a number of years both the central government, as well as the officials of the separate states, have made praiseworthy efforts to promote public instruction, and particularly to bring the education of the masses to a level worthy our century, and by doing so to lift the degree of culture of the nation in morals, science, and material welfare, so that Mexico might occupy a place among the civilized nations of the world corresponding to its advantageous natural conditions and resources.

However, these efforts and the willingness to make grand sacrifices have not been crowned with the success which one would justly be entitled to expect, if the enormous sums are considered that were expended for the purpose.

The main causes of this lamentable fact are, the want of well-trained professional teachers; frequent misunderstanding of educational theories taken from foreign pedagogical works; the blind acceptation or rejection of new ideas, methods, and theories in accordance with the first impression; finally, the chaos arising from the fact that every state, however small it may be, and although all are subject to the same central government, has its own school legislation. Hence, in the preparation of teachers in the studies of elementary and secondary

schools there is no uniformity in the curricula, and from year to year, even within the course of one school year, changes are made which prolong or shorten the course. The student is obliged, under such circumstances, to lose time and means in order to adjust himself to the same conditions in case he moves across the border of his little state. More frequently he loses confidence in science and its teachers. The same chaos prevails in the philosophic fundamental principles according to which science is taught in the higher seats of learning.

While here pedagogy is taught after Herbert Spencer and psychology a priori after Jaime Balmes, at another place psychology is taught after Spencer and logic after Tiberghien; here flourishes the positivism of August Compte side by side with the rationalism of Krause and Ahrens, and again at another place we find the philosophy of St. Thomas of Aquino luxuriating under the shadow of Charles Darwin.

Orange Free State.-The system of education in Orange Free State is national. Small grants are also made to the Episcopal and Roman Catholic Churches. The government schools are managed by elected local boards, which choose the teachers, who are appointed by the President if he is satisfied with their qualifications. Education is not compulsory nor free, except for very poor children. In 1890, 17,000 livres was allotted to education, being a portion of interest on a capital of 200,000 livres set apart by the "Volksraad" for this purpose. In 1889 there were 49 government schools, inclusive of the two higher schools and the infant school at Bloemfontein, with 2,139 pupils and 74 teachers. Grants are made to private schools on certain conditions. In 1889 there were 14 such schools with 211 pupils. The Grey College, the highest school for boys, prepares candidates for the matriculation of the Cape University. There is a similar school for girls. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Ecuador.-The religion of the republic of Ecuador, according to the constitution, is the Roman Catholic, to the exclusion of every other. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory. There is a university at Quito and university bodies at Cuenca and Guyaquil. There are 37 secondary schools and 856 primary schools, with, according to official statistics, about 60,000 pupils. There is a scientific institution in Quito with 11 professors and 50 students. There are commercial, technical schools, and military schools.

Persia.-In Persia there are a great number of colleges (medresseh) supported by public funds, in which students are instructed in religion and Persian and Arabic literature, as well as in a certain amount of scientific knowledge, and many schools for children, while private tutors are very common, being employed by all families who have the means. A polytechnic school with a number of European professors, opened in Teherân forty years ago, has done much towards introducing the knowledge of Western languages and science into Persia. There are also military colleges at Teherân and Tabriz; but the bulk of the population are taught only to read the Koran.

Peru.-In Peru elementary education is compulsory for both sexes, and is free in the public schools that are maintained by the municipalities. High schools are maintained by the government in the capitals of the departments, and in some provinces pupils pay a moderate fee. There is in Lima a central university called "Universidad de San Marcos," the most ancient in America. Its charter was granted by the Emperor, Carlos V. It has faculties of jurisprudence, medicine, political science, theology, and applied science. Lima possesses a school of mines and civil engineering, created in 1874, with good collections and laboratories. There are in the capital and in some of the principal towns private high schools under the direction of English, German, and Italian teachLima has also a public library with a rich collection, besides the one of the university and school of mines. There are two minor universities at Cuzco and Arequipa. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

ers.

Portugal.-In Portugal the superintendence of public instruction is under the management of a superior council of education at the head of which is the minister of the interior. Public education is entirely free from the supervision and control of the church. By a law enacted in 1844, it is compulsory for parents to send their children to a place of public instruction; but this prescription is far from being enforced, and only a very small number of children of the middle and lower classes really attend school. According to official returns of the total population at the close of 1878 the number of illiterate inhabitants in Portugal and its islands is stated to be 3,751,774, or 82 per cent of the total population, including, however, young children. The total school population in 1885 was 332,281. In the year 1887 there were 3,739 public primary schools with 179,089 pupils, and 1,608 private primary schools with 60,725 pupils. The total day school at

tendance of 329,800 gave an average of 50.9 per cent per 1,000 inhabitants. For secondary instruction there were 22 lyceums with 215 teachers; 74 private schools and a royal military college with 272 students. For higher instruction there are (1887) the following schools and colleges: The University of Coimbra. founded in 1290, with faculties of law, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy, 774 students; the polytechnic schools of Lisbon, and Oporto, 354 students; the medical schools at Lisbon, Oporto, and Funchal, 286 students; a military and a naval school at Lisbon, an agricultural and veterinary institute at Lisbon, and a higher school of literature. For special instruction there are: The industrial and commercial institutes at Lisbon and Oporto with (1887) 1,222 pupils; 14other industrial schools with 1,078 pupils, 4 artillery and 2 naval schools (corvettes) with together 314 pupils; and 15 teachers' seminaries with 3,838 students. The clergy are educated in 22 establishments, where most of them receive gratuitous instruction. Schools of agriculture are being established in various parts of the country.

The expenditure of the ministry of public instruction, according to the budget of 1890-'91, is 1,102,283 milreis, exclusive of 643,223 milreis to be expended through other ministries. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Russia. The Government is making strong efforts at Russifying the Grand Duchy of Finland. All the secondary schools have received a new course of study in which the Russia, language predominates. Thus the Baltic provinces with their almost exclusive German population and Finland with its Swedish population are to be made Russian provinces in fact as they are now in name. (Paed. Ztg.)

Roumania.-In Roumania education is free and compulsory "wherever there are schools," but is still in a very backward condition. There are about 3,000 primary schools with 130,000 pupils, or about 2 per cent of the population (in Great Britain the proportion is 12.3 per cent). There are 8 normal schools with 800 pupils; 54 high schools with 8,000 pupils; 2 universities (Bucharest and Jassy) with faculties in law, philosophy, science, and medicine, and having about 100 professors and teachers and 800 students.

Salvador.-Education is free and obligatory in Salvador. In 1888 there were 732 primary schools with 27,000 pupils; 18 higher schools (including 2 normal and 1 polytechnic school) with 1,293 pupils, and a national university with faculties of jurisprudence, medicine, natural sciences, and engineering, attended by 180 students.

In the capital is a national library and museum, and in the republic 13 newspapers are published.

Transvaal.-There are 10 English schools in Pretoria, and one or more in each of the other towns. According to the report of the acting superintendent of education for the year 1888, the sum of £24,987 was spent for the education of 5,475 pupils. In 1889 there were 28 village schools and 196 ward schools, besides a gymnasium with 173 pupils at Pretoria. The establishment of a university is contemplated and £20,000 were voted for the purpose by the Volksraad.

Santo Domingo.-Primary instruction in Santo Doningo is gratuitous and obligatory,being supported by the communes and by central governments. The pub lic or state schools are, primary, superior, technical schools, normal schools, and a professional school with the character of a university. On December 31, 1884, when the last school census was taken, there were 201 municipal schools for primary instruction, with 7,708 pupils. It is estimated that there are now 300 schools with about 10,000 pupils.

There are several literary societies in the capital and other towns, and in the republic there are published about forty newspapers. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

17. PENSIONS.

Scotland.-Glasgow has a scheme for the pensioning of teachers which it will be interesting for American leaders to study. The actuary has worked out the details with great care. It applies to all employés of the school board. There are six classes-headmasters, assistant male teachers, assistant female teachers, office staff, janitors, and compulsory officers. The first three classes only are considered in detail, and the assessments of salaries are made at the following rates: Headmasters, 8 per cent; assistant male teachers, 5 per cent, and assistant female teachers, 8 percent, the total amount of the capital fund required to be found at present being $300,000, or, including the other three classes, $350,000. There were in June, 1889, in the employment of the board 67 headmasters, ranging in age from 35 to 65; the average scale of salary ranging from $1,250 to $2,000

per annum.

Of assistant male teachers, there were 216 who drew salaries ranging from $300 to $650, and averaging $465, and whose ages ranged from 20 to 59only 6, however, being above 44 years. The assistant female teachers numbered. 335, and the average scale of salary was from $250 to $450. Of these only 25 were over 40 years of age, the largest class being that between 25 and 29 years. Although, as a general rule, the rate of salary increases with age, that rule is not invariable. Among the female assistants the highest average salary is between the ages of 40 and 44, in which class the average is $455; and amongst male assistants the same class stands highest, with an average salary of $635. (Schoolmaster.)

England. "It is indisputable," says the Birmingham Daily Gazette, "that a large percentage of school masters and mistresses would not be able to put by even a shilling a week without feeling the loss of it. In villages the salaries of mistresses range from $175 to $300 a year, and of masters from $200 to $350. It is by no means uncommon to find that on these earnings a man is keeping a wife and family, and, as is well known, it would be greatly to his disadvantage not to keep up the appearance of being fairly well off. To compel these people to make provision for old age is only to increase their present difficulties, and if any such scheme was adopted which required a pension premium, its operation would have to be limited to those cases in which fair salaries' are paid. Take them altogether, teachers are not a particularly provident class, and considering that they are aware that old age and infirmity must disqualify them from performing their duties, it is remarkable that they so seldon think of the future and prepare to meet emergencies."

The leading exponent of the opinion of the Church of England has been turning to the subject of paying pensions to elementary teachers, and declares itself in favor of government interference. If one could "put back the clock" just 45 years to the time when licensed teachers were just being called into being, it would be easy, in the opinion of many, to say that each licensed teacher should pay $10 a year into a pension fund, to be met by a similar sum out of the Parliamentary grant, and thus secure a valuable sum, payable on death, should that event occur before the teacher has reached the age of €5, and an income of $200 a year forever afterward. And if some such rule had been adopted our English elementary teachers would now all of them be in the position of their fellowworkers in almost every continental European country, where, as Mr. Arnold testified, pension schemes for primary teachers are practically universal.

It is, of course, perfectly possible for Parliament (adds the Guardian) to enact such a rule in the case of all persons who in future shall join the ranks of the teaching profession. But what in the mean while is to be done with the 43,500 existing teachers for whom no such rule was made when it was possible for them to observe it? In the interest of education as well as humanity we plead for an early consideration of this question. Teachers who go about their tasks with a feeling of security as to the future will do infinitely better in their trying work than those for whom the future is a blank, unrelieved by any prospect but that of a cheerless old age in the workhouse. If the state assumed the whole responsibility for finding pensions at the age of 65 (still further contends the Guardian) for every licensed teacher, inasmuch as with the present total of 43,500 teachers there would probably never be more than about 6,000 over 65 years of age, the whole cost of pensioning those persons off at $200 a year would be less than a quarter of a million pounds. And what is a quarter of a million pounds (in this case 6,000 × 200 $1,200,000) for the worn-out teachers by the side of the £2,000,000 a year with which Parliament has just endowed the parents of elementary scholars?

18.-PSYCHOLOGY.

Synopsis of "Historical Sketch of the Idea of Apperception.”—(1) Leibniz, who first used the term "apperception " gives it the significance of consciousness or distinct, conscious conceiving, coupled with remembrance, in contradistinction to weak perceptions which make impressions on the senses, but not in consciousness; and again he defines it as an act of taking hold of the contents of a concept by arbitrary attention or as a reflexive cognition of our inner conditions, or, in short, as self-observation. Apperception with Leibniz has the characteristic of spontaneity, only dependent upon the determinative influence of the existing-i. e., accumulated-contents of the soul.

(2) Kant finds that the sense impressions and inner emotional experiences offer the raw formless material of cognitions. With the aid of imagination these cog

nitions are fitted into forms of space and time already existing in the soul. But in order that they may obtain the significance of concepts, certain innate pure notions of the understanding are added so as to connect them. He assumes the existence of certain categories grouped under the heads of quantity, quality, relation, and modality. As he assumes two sources of knowledge, (1) sensual and emotional experience which offer the material, and (2) our s If active interior which molds the material into forms, so he assumes two faculties corresponding with these sources: (1) the faculty to receive impressions, (2) the faculty to call fc2th representations. The former is termed "receptivity of the senses," the latter "spontaneity of the understanding." But previous to all this are, a priori” the pure concepts of space and time, as well as the pure notions of the understanding which we add to the experience as something inborn. This spontaneous activity, which combines in self-consciousness the various impressions entering through the senses, is called "apperception." He also calls it "selfconsciousness."

(3) Herbart thinks that every perception entering consciousness through the senses acts upon the concepts present as an irritant or stimulant, pressing back everything contrary to it and attracting all similar concepts. All concepts in consciousness are grouped, and a new perception induces new conditions among them, i. e., fusing or arresting a fusion of concepts. It is like a light casting its shine all around upon the existing mass of concepts. The new percept in the center at first has a controlling influence, and attracts similar and repels dissimilar concepts. It joins those with which it establishes relation and is assimilated by them. At times it is so powerful that it changes the complexion of the already accumulated group of concepts which it joins. This assimilation of the new matter by concepts already existing is apperception, and hence Herbart finds no spontaneity in it. Even the categories (see Kant) are to him results of adjustment between the simple concepts and groups of related concepts. Searching for the conditions of apperception, he recognized and emphasized the importance of that residue or store of concepts acquired in the course of life; that is, its importance for the acquisition of new impressions and experiences. With that the definition of apperception as a resultant of gradual development of the mind is given.

(4) Lazarus claims that in the process of apperception two stages must be distinguished that of action and reaction. The soul may react upon sense impressions in two ways: first, according to its original nature, then according to the nature acquired by its previous activity. In the former case the result is perception, in the latter apperception. Every perception is also an apperception; that is, a reaction of the soul filled more or less with the contents of former processes (concepts). The soul, as a sensible being, perceives according to its original nature, and it apperceives according to the elements acquired through earlier actions. An apperception is not added to complete a perception, but perception is formed under the assisting and essentially determinative influence of apperception. Hence, generally speaking, apperception may be considered as a reaction of the soul (filled with contents of former action) against outer and inner perception. He also calls attention to the importance of unconscious perception, as well as that of feelings and tendencies, moods and volition. (5) Steinthal sees in apperception a result rather than an action. The new percept entering consciousness through the senses meets masses of concepts and thereby cognition is generated (that is apperception takes place). The new percept seeks, as it were, memory images of the same or similar objects of observation, being interpreted by them, measured, and put in rank and file, to speak figuratively. Like other philosophers he lays much stress upon the emotional action of the soul in facilitating or checking these processes of degenerating, which by him are termed apperception. The soul's contents consisting of well articulated groups of concepts and series of thoughts react with different force. Some groups which are reproduced regularly, such as one's professional ideas, apperceive more readily. That group always apperceives which either absolutely, or only in the special case, proves the most powerful. A chief condition for the relative power of the concepts is interest which causes attention.

(6) Waitz speaks of residua, remainders, that is, aftereffects of perceptions in the soul by which all subsequent conditions of the soul are modified. In earliest childhood a confused mass caused by simultaneousness of different impressions, apperceives all separate sense impressions; but in later years no pure and isolated perception can take place because the interior is always preoccupied by a greater number of remainders of previous processes with which the new perception has to make terms.