Roman Catholic and Protestant missionary bodies at Shanghai and other parts where the English languages and lower branches of Western science only for the subjects of study. The Chinese Government has of late years established naval and military colleges and torpedo schools in connection with the different arseanals at Tientsin, Shanghai and Foochow in which foreign instructors are engaged to teach such young Chinese as intend to make their career in the army and navy off their country, Western modes of warfare, beside Western languages and literature. The Chinese newspapers have for several years flourished at Shanghai, and the success they have achieved has led to the establishment of others at some of the other treaty ports. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Colombia.-In Colombia the religion of the nation is Roman Catholicism, other forms of religion being permitted, so long as their exercises are "not contrary to Christian morals, nor to the law." There are two universities and numerous colleges and special technical schools in the Republic. In 1859 there were 14 normal schools with 393 students, and 1,734 primary schools with 92,794 pupils. Primary education is gratuitous but not compulsory.

Costa Rica.-Education in Costa Rica is compulsory and free. In 1890 there were 300 primary schools with 15,000 pupils, besides 90 private schools with 2,500 pupils. In 1884 the number of children between 7 and 14 years of age was 27,245. In the budget for 1889–90, $350,000 were devoted to education. Denmark.-Elementary education is widely diffused in Denmark, the attendance at school being obligatory from the age of 7 to 14. Education is afforded gratuitously in the public schools to children whose parents can not afford to pay for their teaching. The University of Copenhagen has about 1,300 students. Connected with the university is a polytechnic institution with 20 teachers and 200 students. Between the university and the elementary schools there are 13 public gymnasia or high schools, in the principal towns in the Kingdom, which afford a "classical "education, and 27 modern high schools. There are five teachers' training colleges. Instruction at the public expense is given in parochial schools spread all over the country, to the number, according to the latest official statistics, of 2,940, namely, 28 in Copenhagen, 132 in the towns of Denmark, and 2,780 in the rural districts; with 231,940 pupils in all, or 123 per thousand of population. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Egypt. In a recent work on Egyptian education ("L'Instruction Publique en Egypte," by Yacoub Artin Pacha) is the following account of education that is pursued by the Egyptians-in fact, the education which has been in vogue with them for many centuries:

Reading and writing are the first steps taken by the child, who is at the same time set to learn a portion of the Koran by heart. As soon as he knows his letters and can read syllables he reads and writes the part of the "Koran" committed to memory, and so on, until the Holy Book is finished, a task generally taking 2 or 3 years. These exercises of the memory are carefully graduated according to the child's age and ability. Then comes the study of grammar, the rules being set in rhyme, a plan for facilitating the work of the pupil not confined to the Mussulman world. The study of grammar, logic, rhetoric, etc., takes 3 or 4 years. Then follow 8 or 10 years of commentaries on the "Koran," and after this period is completed the boy, who began at 6 or 8, is now, at 20 or 22, a full-blown mondarris (professor) or cheikh (doctor). Most children leave school at 10 or 12 to take up a trade; those who are intended for a profession or for business leave after the grammar course; only a few remain to pursue the higher course in religion and law. Of the latter some become kadi (judges) or mufti (lawyers); the rest become teachers. The ideal of the founders of the universities had been to preserve the language of the elect, the language of the "Koran."

Arabic was reserved as the language of religion, tradition, and law. Beyond these three subjects all other instruction was intrusted to foreigners, with the single exception of mathematics, which was in the hands of the Copts, who had distinguished themselves from early times as financiers. Mehemet Ali was the first to attempt to introduce European method into Egyptian pedagogy. In 1816 he sent a body of young Mamelukes to England and Italy to learn engineering, etc., and in 1825 he founded a school of medicine, restricted to Egyptian students. From 1826 to 1834 large numbers of young men were sent to France to complete their studies; and to the general spread of European culture, resulting from these wise measures of Mehemet Ali, Egypt owes her 50 primary and secondary and her 16 technical schools. A council of public instruction was instituted in 1836, but for 30 years the conservative influence of El Azhar was too strong, and progress was infinitesimal. Ismail Pacha undertook a general reorganization

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of the educational system of the country, and founded schools of law, language, science, and art, and a normal school. Since 1885 progress has been as rapid as could be expected, as will be seen from the tables at the end of this volume.

A modus vivendi has been established between the state schools and the university and the divergence between the two systems is being gradually narrowed down. Artin Pacha looks forward, "patient in his impatience," to see the seed sown by the great political and intellectual regenerator of Egypt bearing its fruits; nor does he hesitate to express his belief that the "ancient and illustrious university mosque of El Azhar, animated by the scientific spirit which is urging us forward, will take its place by the side of its younger and more justly celebrated sisters, the universities of modern Europe, who have outstripped us in the past." The education of women is: First, religion, given by chickhs or women teachers; and, second, domestic, i. c., teaching, housekeeping, manners, embroidery, singing, and so on. Dancing, of course, is not a custom of respectable orientals. The age at which girls are married, viz, between 12 and 16, is a serious impediment to a complete system of instruction. Curiously enough, even the limited instruction given at present is partly due to the establishment of a midwifery school in 1836; the sages femmes were the partially innocent cause of the creation of a thirst for knowledge; at any rate they taught the elementary principles of hygiene in countless native families and this widening of the horizon was productive of immediate good.

France.-M. Antoine Albalat, in an article in the Nouvelle Revue, draws a most harrowing picture of the results of the purely theoretical educational system, which, until a few years ago, was looked upon as a panacea of all evils. France, nowadays, he says, is nothing but a large civil-service employment agency. And the struggle for life with us means the race for government and other posts. Thanks to political equality and free education, which have reduced all to a dead level, the French nation, once so fertile in ideas and so original, threatens to become nothing but a nation of civil servants and pedagogues. Just count the number of place seekers! The prefect of the department of the Seine published a few months ago the following list of vacancies and applicants in that department: Junior clerks, 4 vacancies, 4,398 applicants; male teachers, 42 vacancies, 7,139 applicants; drawing masters, 3 vacancies, 147 applicants; customhouse clerks, 165 vacancies, 2,773 applicants; surveyors, 1 vacancy, 1,338 applicants. The civil service, the post-office, the telegraph office, and the schools have all greatly increased their teaching force, and they are at present the bane of our country. France may be roughly divided into those who hold positions and those who seek them. The vast majority of Frenchmen have only one dream, to be kept by the state, to live on the public_taxes. Parents have no other ambition for their children-the civil servant, the young man who draws Government pay, is their ideal son-in-law.

Even the sons of the soil are streaming into the towns, be it only to sit behind the pay desk. But the women are more to be pitied. In default of marriage, they are seeking work, especially as teachers. But how soon they are undeceived! Read the bitter plaints with which they continually fill the ears of the minister of education. The state promised them a peaceable, respectable iife, with a secure income; and thousands of them are without positions, on the verge of despair, and fall an easy prey to temptation. No one will ever know the number of these victims of arithmetic and French history that are swallowed up by the great gulf of vice. "I know nothing more sad than this," exclaims M. Albalat. Here is the result of our theoretical, Utopian, and modern education!. We talk of a fourth estate. There is a fifth estate, namely, the women who have to earn their living by their brains. (Lond. Jl. of Ed.)

Germany.-Prof. Weber, of Steglitz, near Berlin, who acted for some time as assistant principal in English schools, answers the question: "Do English schools deserve to be considered models for German schools?" in the negative.

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"Any observant foreigner who has lived in England," says he, even if only for a short time, must have been struck with the great self-consciousness of the Englishman, which quality is already developed to a high degree in the little boy. The Englishman is proud of the language of his country, of its riches, and of its institutions. As a consequence it is a common fault with him to depreciate other nations and to overrate himself and his own people. To this national selfreliance he adds a great love of individual liberty and self-dependence. He will not under any circumstances be deprived of them, either by the state or by the church, and he hates all bureaucratic ways, or, as he calls it, red-tape business.' Then he possesses a profound respect for the law and for the existing institutions of the state, as well as in general a true sense of religion, which sense is

greatly fostered and enhanced by his family life. Moreover, we find in the Englishman the singular inclination to ask first of all in everything he undertakes: Of what use is it?' 'Englishmen can not take anything easy,' says Karl Hildebrand in Briefe aus England,' 'neither can they take anything idealistically. They transpose everything at once into the practical. English idealism is always practical, in contradistinction to the German, which manifests itself in artistic contemplation.' To this practical sense the English partly owe their supremacy upon the seas, and we Germans, who but a short time since began to acquire colonies, may learn very much in this respect from the practical Englishman.

These different peculiarities of the English character are distinctly expressed in the English schools; they exert a mutual influence upon each other and are mutually dependent upon one another.

"As the whole life of the Englishman is chiefly based on the principle of utility, so also in his school life he places this principle in the first rank.

The average Englishman does not, as a rule, strive after knowledge if he does not see his way to make practical use of it; in other words, he does not pursue knowledge for her own sake. This principle is very dangerous and pernicious to the intellectual progress of a people, and it is not to be wondered that a notion or a true idea of the elements of science is unknown to the great masses. "For the language, literature, and the history of other nations,' Mr Brennecke rightly says, 'for efforts in art which adorn and cheer the inner life, the average Englishman, deducting, of course, amateurs, the upper 10,000, and specialists, have no time in life,' because, I add, he does not understand nor appreciate them. We Germans are, however, only too easily inclined to lay too much stress upon the scientific side of things, and in so doing to forget often the practical use of the results we obtain.

"The English system cares little about the acquirement of manifold knowledge by the pupils and the scientific treatment of the subjects, but it tries, before all, to fulfill two tasks: Firstly, to develop the physique of the pupil, to make him in all respects healthy and capable of resistance, and to harden him against physical and moral injury. This having been accomplished, the teacher's aim is to develop in the vigorous body an independent, firm character; he will accustom the boys to absolute truth, candor, and resoluteness; they must quickly and independently find the right thing and learn to execute. In a word, the English master educates; the German rather instructs.

"A great difference between English and German school arrangements consists in this: The English Government pays no attention to the higher and middle schools. An organization and superintendence of the schools by the state, as in Germany, does not exist; these schools are either a private commercial speculation or they have been founded by old and often very rich endowments or by corporations. The Englishman is far too independent to allow the state the right of prescribing for him the education of his children. But there are already reasonable Englishmen enough who believe that a firm organization of all schools by the state can do more for education in general than the doubtful trade of private schools, and they demand the same institution as in Germany. In Scotland state superintendence was introduced in 1885.

"Thus the state can give no prerogatives to schools, and that at least is very good, for the prerogatives given to our schools do a great deal of harm in hindering their free development.

"I will not, however, forget to mention that a certain supervision of schools is exercised in England by the press and literature, and the power of the press over the masses is much greater in England than with us.

"A certain uniformity in scholastic matters between the more superior public and even private schools is to be seen in the local examinations, which are held annually by the universities.

Some secondary schools also submit voluntarily every year to regular examinations, for their own credit's sake, 'so as to give the world confidence in them.' But in comparison to a firm organization these examinations can be but a miserable makeshift. Mr. Raydt informs us that for some time there have been held regular meetings of school principals, which might, indeed, have a good influence upon the formation of a uniform plan of teaching; but why are the debates of these meetings not published, as in Prussia? By these means they would become of common service to every teacher. In this regard I can not sufficiently praise the reports of the school inspectors on the elementary schools inspected by them in their districts. These reports are printed in the Parliamentary papers and contain many interesting and useful points.

'It is the German elementary school work by which the English should learn how salutary is the supervision of schools by the state, and how they should especially reform their middle-class or secondary schools."

Guatemala.-Primary education in Guatemala is obligatory, maintained by the state, free and secular. The sum spent on education in 1887-'88 (ending June 30) was $525,625, of which $253,927 were for primary education. In 1887 there were 93,627 children of school age. At the end of 1889 there were, according to official statements, 1,327 primary schools of all kinds, attended by 47,907 pupils, and 66 higher schools, with 3.677 pupils. There were in addition 7 high and normal schools, with 1,185 pupils (315 females).

Montenegro.-Schools for elementary education in Montenegro are supported by Government; education is compulsory and free; there are (1889) 70 elementary schools, with 3,000 male and 300 female pupils. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium or college for boys at Cettinje, and a girls' high school maintained at the charge of the Empress of Russia.

Hawaii.-The Kingdom of Hawaii (comprising eight large productive and thirteen small desolate islands), with 80,000 inhabitants, is of special importance for commercial intercourse between North America and East Asia. It is well known that the recently deceased King Kalakaua, in 1881, made an extensive tour through America and Europe. European institutions and therewith Christianity were introduced in Hawaii at the beginning of our century and special attention was given to education. The United States exert the greatest influence upon the administration of this Kingdom and covertly aim at the protectorate over the Kingdom. Its annexation on the part of the United States is only a question of time.

From the main island public education was diffused over the whole Kingdom in a comparatively short time. At the beginning of the second decade of our century the chieftain and his most distinguished subjects diligently studied reading and writing. This awakened everywhere the desire to learn these wonderful arts. The most able men among the adult students were sent as teachers to all parts of the country, and the throng to their schools was so great that in 1827 there were 52,000 persons studying in 900 schools, or more than half the number of the inhabitants were eagerly engaged in acquiring the elements of learning. In 1832 the number of natives who could read amounted to 32,000, of whom nearly all were also able to write. At present there is in operation in Lahainaluna a normal school for the training of preachers and teachers, who alternately devote themselves to intellectual and physical work, as the students earn their living by the tilling of a farm belonging to the institution. Manual work takes a prominent place in all schools of the little Kingdom. Education is obligatory for both sexes from 6 to 15 years of age (formerly 4 to 14). A peculiar feature is the regulation in force that anybody who can not read or write is prohibited from obtaining public office and also forbidden to marry.

The Kingdom is divided into twenty-three school districts, each of which is under the supervision of an inspector. This official superintends the management of the schools, both the instruction and the buildings and sites. He is required to furnish quarterly a report to the central authority. The school year has forty-one school weeks. The daily sessions are from 9 to 2 o'clock, with one or two intermissions. Sunday and Saturday are holidays. There are different classes of schools:

1. Primary schools (common schools), where the entire instruction is given in the Hawaiian language.

2. English schools, where the English language is the means of instruction. 3. Private schools, in which both languages are used.

The school at Lihue, on the island of Hawaii, in which German and English are taught, belongs to the third class and is attended by children of German workingmen only. For children of the aristocracy there is a kind of secondary school that took its name from the street in which it is situated, "Fort Street School." Protestant missionaries established near Honolulu, on the island of Qahu, the principal city of the country, the "Qahu College," after the pattern of French schools. Catholic missionaries also established schools whose textbooks are, with few exceptions, printed at Honolulu in the native language.

The direction of the entire educational system has been assigned to a "bureau" or "board," consisting of five members, of which three are natives who were educated in the country. The president, at present Mr. Bishop, was formerly secretary of the state department; previous to that, a member of the house of nobles and president of the legislative body. This bureau appoints the teachers and superintends the expenditure of the money appropriated by the representatives of the

people. It nominates a general superintendent for the whole educational system, who visits each school of the country twice a year to examine the pupils and the condition of the school. He reports to the bureau or board. In order to fulfill his duties the general superintendent is obliged every year to travel 800 miles on horseback and 1,600 miles by water. During the school year 1888-89, there were in the Kingdom 179 schools, 63 primary, 69 English and 47 private schools, with 8,770 pupils (4,952 boys, 3,818 girls), with a teaching force of 334 members (177 men, 157 women). At the last exposition in Paris, in 1889, there was on exhibition pupils' work from Hawaii, nearly all of which was expressed in good English and in pleasing form.

The educational system in Hawaii furnishes proof of how much one can do if stimulated by earnestness of intention. Scarcely sixty years have passed since the first pioneers of public education commenced their work in Hawaii, and already its public school system can compare with that of Europe.

The state, however, has easy sailing because it has the schools, and no obstacles are raised by the church, since religious societies and the clergy are excluded from the management of school affairs. (Freie päd Blätter.)

Hungary.-Count Albion Casky, the minister of public instruction in Hungary, has recently issued in the German language a synopsis of his annual report, in which he says that he considers professional supervision and a thoroughly trained corps of teachers the most important factors of progress in any school system. So far as figures can speak, certainly Hungary has made rapid progress during the last twenty years. The report shows a comparison between the state of affairs in 1859 and 1889, from which we cull the following items:

1. Elementary schools.—In 1889, 2,015,612 children attended school, while in 1869 only 1,152,115. In comparison with the number of children of school age between 1869 and 1889, an increase of attendance from 50.42 per cent to 80.65 per cent is recorded. While in 1869 1,598 communities were without any schools, that number had decreased to 244 in 1889. The number of schools in 1869 was 13,798; in 1889 it was 16,702. In 1869 the number of teachers was 17,792, while in 1889 it had increased to 24,645. The expenditures for maintaining elementary schools in 1869 were only $1,342,363, but in 1889 they amounted to $5,396,777. While in 1869 the state's subvention to elementary schools was only $14,556, it was $6,505,315 in 1889. The great increase recorded above is found only in those portions of the Kingdom inhabited by people of the Hungarian, German, and Ruthenian tongues. The attendance of Roumanian, Servian, and Slavakish children is in a rather backward condition.

II. Secondary schools.-The Kingdom has 180 secondary schools; that is, 151 gymnasia, or classical colleges, and 29 realschulen, or modern colleges. One hundred and thirteen are complete in their organization, while sixty-seven had not quite completed their organization, lacking the senior classes. The classical schools were attended by 36,367 students, or 83.3 per cent; the modern by 7,303 students, or 16.7 per cent. The minister remarks that the attendance in modern schools is increasing faster than in the classical schools.

III. Superior schools.-Concerning universities, technical and other superior institutions, the minister reports that the candidates for the profession of teaching and students of technical, agricultural, and military schools are increasing in number faster than those of the universities. In the universities he notices that the law faculties and academies are still overcrowded, as in former years, while the number of candidates for theology, medicine, forestry, and mining is decreasing. An interesting feature of the superior education in Hungary is this: The examination for graduation must be exceptionally rigorous, for of 877 candidates for the legal profession only 521 (that is, 59 per cent) passed the examination; of 297 medical students, only 207 (or 69 per cent); of 140 students of the philosophic faculty, only 38 (or 27 per cent); of 210 students of the Polytechnicum, only 80 (or 38 per cent) passed.

Italy-A new school for Italy is now under the consideration of the council of public instruction, and its provisions are foreshadowed in the "New Educator" of Rome. It is proposed to transfer the charge of the infant schools from the minister of the interior to the minister of instruction, and the age of compulsory attendance is raised to twelve years. The appointment of teachers is left in the hands of the communal boards. Teachers under 21 years of age will only be provisionally appointed; on coming of age their status will be improved, and at the age of 24 they will be recognized as fully responsible teachers. Thenceforth they will be removable only for grave offenses specified in the bill; their dismissal will have to be approved by the provincial board of education, and an appeal to the minister will probably be allowed.