science. It is of little value to love truth and justice, if our ignorance makes it impossible for us to understand what is truth or how to do justice in a given instance. Truth may be relative and justice approximate, but we could do a far better job of it by making intelligent use of the facts we have.

Many of us believe that science has done more to help the cause of truth and justice in society than has any other line of human endeavor; for science has taught man the sequence of events to which he must conform if the individual or the nation is to reach its highest development. Because of scientific teaching, men demand to-day reasons for conduct other than traditional prohibitions or indulgences. And these reasons must be based upon scientific facts and presented in terms of scientific method. Science furnishes the groundwork to which our ethical judgment must conform. The old, emotional forms of thought play a losing game. Sentimentality is losing its grip in favor of a calm, farsighted determination to know what is true that we may do what is right, which is the highest ethical ideal. Science does not furnish the incentive to truth and justice, but it does furnish the material out of which truth and justice may be constructed by use of the scientific method; and for the individual, it furnishes the data needed for a wellordered life.

If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you; If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, But make allowance for their doubting too: Here again, Kipling states our case; for he presents the ideal of striving for truth and justice, not blindly but with a view to the whole situation.

We contend that the scientific method furnishes the only safe approach in our attack upon the complex problems of human

life; since it enables us to approach these problems in a saner fashion, making for dispassionate judgment and for the elimination of prejudice. Now this elimination of what influences the "you" and the "me," in favor of what can be agreed upon as a fair interpretation by us all, is no easy matter. Scientific men do not always live up to their ideals within their own domain nor do they always carry over their ideals to daily life. But this impersonal way of thinking is a priceless possession, and if scientific men strive to apply it in life generally the effort is worth while however short it falls. We need more facts of science for our material progress, but more than this we need the method of science for the penetration of sham and for the elimination of personal interest in our dealings. The plea is not that the scientist is always a good citizen, but that the scientific method is useful for the citizen; that, as social life becomes more complex, it is necessary for the citizen to apply this method as a tool wherewith to shape the conclusions which shall guide his conduct.

5. SCIENCE AND EMANCIPATION

Finally, the value of science inclusive of every other is its influence upon our mental outlook; for only by the acquisition of a scientific habit of mind do we find intellectual emancipation. In substantiation of such a claim, we may cite the theory of organic evolution, which is the most comprehensive illustration afforded by the biological sciences, and perhaps by science generally.

The evolutionary concepts current among the Greeks were tinctured with philosophy. Lacking concreteness, they made little headway; and we find the beginnings of modern evolutionary doctrine in the accumulation of facts regarding animals and

plants which marked the centuries just preceding the year 1750. To Buffon and to other less known writers of the eighteenth century belongs the credit for having first. promulgated the evolutionary theory in a form which was scientific rather than philosophical and which carried a measure of conviction, despite its crudities and the hampering of theological criticism. One can not turn the pages of Buffon's encyclopedic work without a growing respect for the knowledge of animal life there represented. Obviously, the foundation for much of our comparative anatomy of vertebrates was even then established. It is a familiar story how Lamarck was the first tc offer a theory of the causes of evolution; how he failed to make his case as against the authority of Cuvier; how the latter, although opposing evolution, accumulated some of our strongest evidence, through his studies in comparative anatomy; and how von Baer supplemented this by his work in embryology; until in Darwin's day there were ample facts at hand for the establishment of the fact of evolution, if not for the determination of its causation.

As Professor Lovejoys has pointed out, evolution itself aside from its causes might have been accepted, as the only reasonable interpretation of the facts, at any time after the year 1840. That it was not so accepted among those who ridiculed the "Vestiges of Creation," is a sad comment upon the open-mindedness of science and the psychology of conviction in its relation to evidence. The story that science hesitated for lack of evidence, only adduced by the "Origin of Species," does not represent the facts. Though we have inher

5 Lovejoy, A. O., "The Argument for Organic Evolution before 'The Origin of Species,' " Popular Science Monthly, November and December, 1909.

ited this tradition from so clear a thinker as Huxley, we should be anxious to replace it with a frank avowal, that the two decades following 1840 present a humiliating spectacle to workers who pride themselves upon the acceptance of doctrines whenever and wherever the evidence is forthcoming. The fact is that during the period in question science may well be accused of shutting its eyes to patent evidence. Darwin's claim to distinction lies in his early recognition of the evolutionary problem as at the core of biological science, and in his marshalling of facts for evolution and for his theory of "Natural Selection" in a manner that was overwhelming. The almost immediate acceptance, in biological science, of Darwin's views and the spread of the evolutionary concept to other fields during the remaining years of the nineteenth century are well known. Evolution has won its fight. We are here concerned with its effects upon human thinking in the past and its probable influences in the future.

The triumph of the evolutionary conception completed the overthrow of those older ideas of the universe which culminated in medieval theology. Evolution was the final extension of that enlarging horizon disclosed by the theory of the earth's sphericity and the Copernican theory of the solar system, concepts which are indissolubly united and which represent each a stride forward in the face of diminishing resistance. It went hard with Galileo, and so would it have gone with Copernicus had all the implications of his theory been recognized before his death. Buffon was not in physical danger, though forced to recant. Darwin, though heaped with abuse, suffered not even inconvenience at the hands of his critics. During the three centuries involved, man's picture of himself

changed from that of a being, recently created and awaiting a day of judgment in the not distant future, to that of a being originating as part of organic nature and set in a universe without beginning and without end. The by-product of this intellectual revolution was an emancipation of the human spirit from the bonds of authority. Authority indeed remained, but no longer that of book or pope. In its place came the authority of nature; and so great was the change we have not yet recognized its full significance.

While we can the better visualize the effects of evolutionary doctrine by thus going back several centuries, it is equally important to recognize what is happening to-day, how this doctrine has affected theological belief since the year 1859, what has happened in philosophy, and what changes have occurred in our outlook upon the problems of society.

In theology, the evolutionary doctrine is carrying us from the concept of a single religion, revealed to man by agents duly inspired, to a multitude of religions of varying worthiness, but all the outgrowth of yearnings which originated with human intelligence. We need not condone the shortcomings of the fathers nor strive for theological explanations of sin and death, of sorrow and pain since these are the not unnatural incidents of our evolution. We know in part whence we came, if not whither we are going, and it is enough if we may by our own efforts somewhat improve the material and spiritual state of ourselves and our children. This new viewpoint has been reached not by a sudden break with the past, but by a gradual shift of mental attitude which makes the older doctrines impossible of acceptance. We have applied the evolutionary concept to religion, as to every other expression of

organic nature; and the result has been a revolution, accomplished before its beginnings were recognized. Thus science has brought emancipation from theological bondage and set free the spirit of man for higher flights in the future.

In philosophy, the evolutionary theory has necessitated the change from a static to a dynamic universe, as witness the contrast between the philosophical systems of the early nineteenth century and the views of Bergson. This change has not yet completed its remodeling of philosophical theories, but only a philosopher can explain its workings.

In the field of social phenomena, we see the influence of the evolutionary theory through the recurrent questioning of the necessity for existing conditions. If the revolutions of the eighteenth century attacked the foundations of civic power and sought to install the authority of peoples over that of kings, the revolution induced by the evolutionary theory has shaken the whole edifice of social tradition. Whatever is may be the natural outcome of the evolution of society to date, but it is not thereby right nor is it necessarily permarent. We may, as evolutionists, recognize the stability of social customs, which have arisen by evolution; but we also recognize these customs as subject to change. Moreover, we must consider the intelligent direction of our future evolution as a possibility, however remote. Evolution has not always taken the most desirable course, as witness the degeneration incident to parasitism; and while we shall probably have little to do with its outcome in the human species, what we may do is worth considering. Germany has evolved a social organization threatening the ideals which dominate the majority of western nations, in challenging which we are striving to direct

the course of social evolution. If we succeed, individualism working collectively will triumph over medieval collectivism.

The influence of the evolutionary conception may be seen again in our attitude toward social problems such as disease and crime. These are not inevitable conditions to be treated by curative measures only. They are to be attacked with all the knowledge of hereditary and environmental factors we can command, and finally eliminated by the evolution of a type of man and a form of society in which such excrescences will be non-existent. We are no longer content with our lot, merely because things have been as they are within the memory of man or because we see no prospect of immediate change. Things have changed in the past and we want to change them in the future. We are not content to let evolution take its course with us, we want to make it go our way. Thus the insight into social changes which evolution brought has given a habit of mind that will brook no restriction upon the human spirit. As with philosophy, we have the change incident to an outlook upon a dynamic as opposed to a static world.

In conclusion, we have shown that science feeds the spiritual as well as the material man. Science deals with what we can measure and weigh, is wholly impersonal, is a thing of the intellect rather than of the emotions. But the intellect and the emotions are not separate entities of the mind, rather the mind is a unit which has its intellectual and its emotional sides. The raw material of scientific fact is susceptible of unlimited organization within the mind and this process of organization gives play to our spiritual nature. If we have made our point, the progress of science has given the spirit of man far more than it has taken away. WINTERTON C. CURTIS

UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

MEASURES FOR PROTECTING WHEAT-FLOUR SUBSTITUTES FROM INSECTS

READERS OF SCIENCE may be interested in work being done to prevent the loss of wheat-flour substitutes due to insect attack. Many of the millers and dealers who handle the cereals which the Food Administration is now requiring as substitutes for wheat flour have always recognized them as being subject to insect attack to such a degree that it has been considered poor policy to handle them extensively during the summer months.

The amount of embryo which is included in a flour, and the coarseness of the product are usually taken as an index of susceptibility to insect attack, coarse flours with the most embryo being the most susceptible. The wheatflour substitutes and other cereals contain embryo, are relatively coarse, and are known to be highly susceptible to insect attack.

Millers, dealers and consumers, will handle more of the susceptible cereals than usual this summer and, unless unusual care is taken to protect them, the requirement of the Food Administration may result in an increased loss. of food and thus defeat the object of the government. However, such losses can be prevented and, if proper precautions are taken, the handling of wheat-flour substitutes need not lead to serious complications with insect pests. The division of entomology and economic zoology in cooperation with the department of animal biology at the University of Minnesota, and the Minnesota State Food Administration have been outlining recommendations and methods for aiding the millers, dealers and consumers of Minnesota in preventing losses of wheat-flour substitutes. The measures are preventive and it is proposed to cover the state with propaganda before any serious trouble has arisen.

The millers are probably the best prepared for the new conditions. The operators of the large flour mills in Minneapolis have learned from experience that these cereals must be carefully handled and they were the first to anticipate complications arising from the wartime emergency. The cereals which are put upon the market in sacks are not permitted to remain in storage but are hastened to the con

sumer, if possible, in less time than is required for the development of the insects beyond the egg stage.

The cereals which go out in sealed packages are heated to about 85° C. at the time of packing. This temperature will kill all stages of insects and if the packages are tightly sealed such products are practically free from insects' attack, unless they are stored in badly infested places. When the insects have access to packages, they will enter through any cracks which they may find and in cases of bad infestation they will make holes through the wrappers and boxes. To protect themselves against losses while these cereals are in the possession of retail dealers, many of the large milling concerns are turning the cereals over to the dealers with only a "sound on delivery" agreement.

It is with the retail dealers and the consumers that this work is particularly concerned. With the millers protecting themselves by rapid transit and the "sound on delivery" agreement the liability of loss devolves upon the retail dealers and the consumers. The retail dealers and consumers must protect themselves against the introduction of undeveloped insects in the cereals. In many of the retail stores where proper precautions are not taken the insects are present and ready to infest the sacked cereal and even that in sealed packages may be destroyed or infested with eggs. Cereals not destroyed in the store may contain eggs which either did not hatch during the short period after leaving the mill or were deposited while in the infested store. The result is that the homes are very apt to become infested. Dealers are recommended to adopt the miller's policy of rapid handling of cereals and to take proper precautions in the sanitation of their stores. Instructions are being sent out to the dealers emphasizing the responsibility resting on those who handle wheat-flour substitutes and warning them of the serious losses which may result if they permit the cereals to be exposed to insect attack.

Consumers are instructed to buy small quantities of cereal, to avoid "sealed pack

age" cereals when the packages are broken or contain holes, to heat "sacked cereals " just as soon as they are taken home, and to use great care in storing all wheat-flour substitutes. If the millers and dealers are able to eliminate their loss by the rapid handling of cereals the loss which our country will experience will depend upon what the consumer does to eliminate loss after the cereal reaches him.

The heating of the cereal to kill any stages of insects which it may contain will protect the consumer against the infestation of the home and in addition it will reduce to the minimum the loss caused by cereal insects. A method of heating cereals in the oven has been simplified and standardized as a result of a series of experiments on heat conduction in cereals and fatal temperatures of the insects infesting them.

The problem in heating is to obtain a condition in which the minimum temperature in any part of the cereal is well above the fatal temperature of the insects, about 45° C. at 24 per cent. of relative humidity. At the same time the temperature in the hottest part must be kept well below the heat which will injure the cereal. about 94° C. This can be done by placing the cereal in pans about two inches deep and heating it in the oven until the surface of the cereal reaches 85° C. At this point the fire should be turned out, in the case of gas, gasolene, or kerosene ovens, and the cereal should be left in the closed oven for forty-five minutes. If a coal or wood stove is used, the oven door should be opened when the top of the cereal reaches 85° C. and the fire should be kept low during the forty-five minutes. Temperature curves representing the temperature of the top, center and bottom of such a pan of cereal show that the center of the cereal reaches a temperature between 55° and 60° C. and that it remains above the fatal temperature for insects for about half an hour. Since thermometers which indicate high temperatures are not in reach of all housewives, a wax has been standardized to melt between 82° and 85° C. and is to be manufactured under the direction of the Food Ad