When it is necessary, however, to make the connection definite and obvious, a variety of resources are at the writer's command. He may for this purpose use

1. Conjunctions, adverbs, and adverbial phrases, 2. Synonymous expressions and pronouns,

3. The echo.

Most often connection is shown by the use of conjunctions, adverbs, and adverbial phrases, as follows: (1) Coördinate: and, also, likewise, again, further, moreover, so too, in like manner, first, secondly, lastly; (2) Adversative: but, however, yet, nevertheless, still, otherwise; (3) Alternative: or and nor, either and or, neither and nor, the one and the other; (4) Illative: hence, therefore, thus, accordingly; (5) Subordinating : if, for, unless, though; (6) Demonstrative: this, these, that, those, in this case, under those circumstances. The proper use of such words and phrases makes explicit and unmistakable the reference intended, and shows accurately the bearing of each sentence upon what precedes and what follows. The following, from Cardinal Newman, shows a considerable number of these words and phrases of explicit reference.

It must not be supposed that, because I so speak, therefore I have some sort of fear of the education of the people; on the contrary, the more education they have, the better, so that it is really education. Nor am I an enemy to the cheap publication of scientific and literary works, which is now in vogue: on the contrary, I consider it a great advantage, convenience, and gain; that is, to those to whom education has given a capacity for using them. Further, I consider such innocent recreations as science and literature are able to

furnish will be a very fit occupation of the thoughts and the leisure of young persons, and may be made the means of keeping them from bad employments and bad companions. Moreover, as to that superficial acquaintance with chemistry, and geology, and astronomy, and political economy, and modern history, and biography, and other branches of knowledge, which periodical literature and occasional lectures and scientific institutions diffuse through the community, I think it a graceful accomplishment, and a suitable, nay, in this day a necessary accomplishment, in the case of educated Nor, lastly, am I disparaging or discouraging the thorough acquisition of any one of these studies, or denying that, as far as it goes, such thorough acquisition is a real education of the mind. All I say is, call things by their right names, and do not confuse together ideas which are essentially different. A thorough knowledge of one science and a superficial acquaintance with many, are not the same thing; a smattering of a hundred things or a memory for detail, is not a philosophical or comprehensive view. Recreations are not education; accomplishments are not education.

men.

Often the connection is made clear by the employment of synonymous expressions and the careful use of pronouns. In the following paragraph, for example, Webster, desiring to keep attention fixed upon the idea, "the value of learning, especially of classical learning," proceeds as follows: (1) The idea of learning in general is carried from sentence to sentence by means of the synonymous expressions, "literature," "learning," "literature, ancient as well as modern," and the allied expression "learned men"; (2) the idea of classical learning is similarly carried on by literal repetition of the words "classical learning," and by the synonymous expression

"scholarship," and the allied expression "scholars "; (3) the pronoun "it" is used to carry on now one, now the other, of these ideas. In the illustration the first series of reference words is put in small capitals, the second in italics, and the word "it" in small capitals, or italics, according as it takes the place of the first or of the second.

LITERATURE sometimes disgusts, and pretension to IT much oftener disgusts, by appearing to hang loosely on the character, like something foreign or extraneous, not a part, but an ill-adjusted appendage; or by seeming to overload and weigh it down by ITS unsightly bulk, like the productions of bad taste in architecture, where there is massy and cumbrous ornament without strength or solidity of column. This has exposed LEARNING, and especially classical learning, to reproach. Men have seen that it might exist without mental superiority, without vigor, without good taste, and without utility. But in such cases classical learning has only not inspired natural talent; or, at most, it has but made original feebleness of intellect and natural bluntness of perception, something more conspicuous. The question, after all, if it be a question, is, whether LITERATURE, ANCIENT AS WELL AS MODERN, does not assist a good understanding, improve natural good taste, add polished armor to native strength, and render ITS possessor, not only more capable of deriving private happiness from contemplation and reflection, but more accomplished also for action in the affairs of life, and especially for public action. Those whose memories we now honor were LEARNED MEN; but their LEARNING was kept in its proper place, and made subservient to the uses and objects of life. They were scholars, not common or superficial; but their scholarship was so in keeping with their character, so blended and inwrought, that careless observers, or bad

judges, not seeing an ostentatious display of it, might infer that it did not exist; forgetting, or not knowing, that classical learning in men who act in conspicuous public stations, perform duties which exercise the faculty of writing, or address popular, deliberative, or judicial bodies, is often felt where it is little seen, and sometimes felt more effectually because it is not seen at all.

WEBSTER: Adams and Jefferson.

The connection of one sentence with the next may be made clear and emphatic by means of the echo, that is, by the repetition of an important word from the first sentence at or near the beginning of the second. The effort of a writer to avail himself of this admirable means of connection sometimes results in a commendable inversion of the usual order of words in a sentence. Compare the following, noticing the closer connection secured by the use of the echo in the column at the right; also noticing the inverted order of words in the last sentence.

The old Greek citizen The old Greek citizen, in founded cities in his settle- his settlements beyond the ments beyond the sea, cities sea, founded cities, cities free free and independent from and independent from the the beginning. Let us now beginning. Let us now see see what has been founded by what the modern European the modern European colo- colonist, subject of a kingdom, nist, subject of a kingdom. has founded. He has founded He has founded settlements settlements of various kinds of various kinds in different in different cases; but he has cases; but he has nowhere nowhere founded free and infounded cities free and inde-dependent cities like the Greek pendent like the Greek and and Phoenician before him.

Phoenician before him. He Cities indeed in one sense he has indeed founded cities in has founded, vast and mighty one sense, vast and mighty cities, busy seats of art and cities, busy seats of art and in- industry and commerce, but dustry and commerce, but not not cities in the elder sense, cities in the elder sense, cities cities independent from their independent from their birth, birth, cities that are born the cities that are born the politi-political equals of the mightical equals of the mightiest est kingdoms. - FREEMAN. kingdoms.

Make clear the connection between sentences, first, by a logical order of ideas, second, by the use of reference-words and repetitions.

42. Assignments on Means of Connecting Sentences. A. In the first part of the paragraph from Macaulay, p. 133, the echo is used. Find it.

B. In the paragraph from Ivanhoe, p. 101, the words "still, however" put what two things in adversative relation?

C. In the selection from Maundeville, p. 7, how many “and's” should be dropped, according to modern standards?

D. In the selection from Bryce, p. 26, what transitions are there?

E. In the paragraph from Macaulay, p. 73, what words and phrases of connection are used?

F. In the selection from Holmes, p. 55, what demonstrative pronouns are employed?

G. In the paragraph by McMaster, p. 106, mark all the words that refer back to or stand for "schoolmaster."

H. Bring to class some good paragraphs you have found in your reading, and point out the connection.

I. Study the connectives in the following paragraphs. Be prepared to point them out and to explain the relationships which they express.