States to exercise their right of interference. Here is a case, then, within the gentleman's principles. It is a case for action. The Constitution is plainly, dangerously, palpably, and deliberately violated; and the States must interpose their own authority to arrest the law. Let us suppose the State of South Carolina to express this same opinion, by the voice of her legislature. That would be very imposing; but what then? Is the voice of one State conclusive? It so happens that, at the very moment when South Carolina resolves that the tariff laws are unconstitutional, Pennsylvania and Kentucky resolve exactly the reverse. They hold those laws to be both highly proper and strictly constitutional. And now, sir, how does the honorable member propose to deal with this case? How does he relieve us from this difficulty, upon any principle of his? His construction gets us into it; how does he propose to get us out?

In Carolina, the tariff is a palpable, deliberate usurpation; Carolina, therefore, may nullify it, and refuse to pay the duties. In Pennsylvania, it is both clearly constitutional and highly expedient; and there the duties are to be paid. And yet we live under a government of uniform laws, and under a Constitution, too, which contains an express provision, as it happens, that all duties shall be equal in all the States. Does not this approach absurdity?

7. THE BRIEF AS AN AID IN ARGUMENTATION

After the argumentative writer has arrived at a clear conception of what it is he wishes to prove, and has examined the evidence in support of his proposition which he has at his disposal, he will do well to make a brief or outline of the course which he plans to have his argument take. In exposition, as we have

seen, the outline is a valuable aid in enabling the writer to set forth clearly the facts or principles he wishes to explain; in argumentation, the brief, which is simply a special form of outline, is well-nigh indispensable. It enables the writer to see at a glance the precise bearing of his arguments upon his proposition, and very greatly facilitates the task of securing their proper arrangement.

As to the form of the brief, it should consist of three parts: an Introduction, the Brief Proper, and a Conclusion. A good Introduction will usually (1) define such terms used as are likely to be misunderstood, (2) explain how and why the subject comes up for discussion, (3) indicate what is admitted by both sides to the dispute, (4) give the conflicting arguments in the case, and (5) state clearly the precise points it is necessary to prove in order to establish the proposition. The Brief Proper should then take up the proposition, or the points at issue indicated in the Introduction, and outline the development of the argument. This can best be done by putting the various arguments used in support of the proposition in the form of main headings, making every one read as a reason for accepting the proposition, or point to be proved, and by putting every subordinate argument in the form of a sub-heading under the argument it is intended to support. Each heading should, of course, be in the form of a complete sentence. The Conclusion should consist simply of a concise summing up of the main arguments and a re-affirmation of the proposition.

The student will probably find it best to make, in

the first place, a short brief, giving only the main arguments. When he has definitely settled upon the order of these arguments, he can then enlarge this to whatever extent may be deemed desirable. Of the examples given below, A shows a preliminary, B a completed, brief.

BRIEF A

SHOULD MANUAL TRAINING FORM A PART OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL WORK OF THE STATE?

INTRODUCTION

I. The question of manual training in the public schools is becoming one of increasing importance.

II. The discussion of the question arises from the fact that, while a large number of the public schools of the State have successfully undertaken manual training during the last twenty-five years, a great many still fail to provide such training.

III. By manual training is meant a series of exercises in a properly equipped work room where children are taught the use of tools and the properties of such materials as wood, metal, leather, etc.

BRIEF PROPER

Manual training should form a part of the public school work of the State, for

I. The courses of instruction in the public schools as now arranged are inadequate for fully developing the child.

II. The introduction of manual training would tend to strengthen the courses where they are now weak.

"

III. The addition of manual training will not interfere with the ordinary academic work now done in the schools.

IV. The argument that the cost of introducing manual training generally into the public schools would be prohibitive is not warranted by the facts.

CONCLUSION

I. Since manual training would strengthen the present courses of study,

II. Since it would benefit rather than injure the intellectual work now done in the schools,

III. And since the cost of its general introduction into the schools would not be excessive,

Therefore it should be made a part of the public school work of the State.

BRIEF B

SHOULD MANUAL TRAINING FORM A PART OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL WORK OF THE STATE?

INTRODUCTION

I. The question of manual training in the public schools is becoming one of increasing importance.

II. The discussion of the question arises from the fact that, while a large number of the public schools of the State have successfully undertaken manual training during the last twenty-five years, a great many still fail to provide such training.

III. By manual training is meant a series of exercises in a properly equipped work room where children are taught the use of tools and the properties of such materials as wood, metal, leather, etc.

IV. Those who favor making manual training a part of the public school work usually contend that,

A. The ordinary public schools do not provide adequately for the training of the child's physical powers.

B. The average child will find skill in the use of tools highly advantageous as a prepara

tion for its vocation in life.

C. This skill cannot now be obtained in the

home.

V. Those who oppose making manual training a part of the public school work contend, ordinarily, that, A. The courses as now arranged in the public

schools not having manual training develop

the child as completely as they would were manual training introduced.

B. Manual training will add little or nothing to the usefulness of the training the child now gets.

C. The cost of introducing manual training into all the public schools of the State, even if

it were desirable, would be prohibitive. VI. The following, therefore, seem to be the special questions to be decided:

A. Do the public schools of the State at present provide adequately for the full development of the child?

B. If not, would the introduction of manual training add a beneficial element?

C. Would the addition of manual training affect either the quantity or the quality of the purely intellectual work now done in the schools?

D. Would the cost of the general introduction

of manual training be excessive?