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In all her works, he must delight in virtue;

And that, which he delights in, must be happy.-Addison.

(3) Man is either a free or a necessitated agent. If the latter, he cannot, of himself, decide between conflicting motives, and is irresponsible. But these conclusions are contradicted by consciousness. Therefore he is free.

14. Discuss: Ought capital punishment to be abolished?

See Nation, Vol. VIII, p. 166, Vol. XVI, p. 213; North American Review, Vol. LXII, p. 40, Vol. CXVI, p. 138, Vol. CXXXIII, p. 534; Foreign Quarterly Review, Vol. XXIV, p. 394; Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. XXVII, p. 865; Westminster Review, Vol. XVII, p. 52, Vol. XCI, p. 429; Carson's Capital Punishment is Murder Legalized; Montagu's On the Punishment of Death; Cheever's Punishment by Death; Cox's Principles of Punishment, pp. 1-14, 77 seq.; S. G. Goodrich's Young American, pp. 234, 235; Fortnightly Review, Vol. XL, p. 581.

15. Discuss: Is America ready for the adoption of free-trade principles ?

See Thompson's Political Economy, pp. 351-360; Fawcett's Free Trade and Protection, pp. 48-73; Cairnes' Political Economy, pp. 375 seq.; Young's Introduction to the Science of Government, pp. 277 seq.; Bowen's American Political Economy, pp. 480 seq.; Sullivan's Protection to Native Industry; North American Review, Vol. XL, p. 122, Vol. XCV, p. 463, Vol. CXXVIII, p. 695; Atlantic, Vol. XXXVI, p. 298; Nation, Vol. XXVIII, p. 161; Fraser's Magazine, Vol. CCXXII, p. 604; Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. CCXXII, p. 447; Edinburgh Review, Vol. XC, p. 133.

16. Discuss: Are labor-strikes, on the whole, beneficial and justifiable?

See Bowen's American Political Economy, p. 110; Brassey's On Work and Wages, p. 1; North American Review, January, 1885; William Trant's Trade Unions; Nation, Vol. XXXVII, p. 70; International Review, Vol. XIV, p. 353; Fraser's Magazine, Vol. C, p. 767; Westminster Review, Vol. LXXIV, p. 1; British Quarterly, Vol. LVIII, p. 336; Living Age, Vol. XXXIX, p. 227; Blackwood's Magazine, Vol. CI, p. 718; Henry George's Social Problems, p. 178; Henry George's Progress and Poverty, p. 281; F. B. Hawley's Capital and Population, p. 130; Joseph's Cook's Labor, p. 286; William Boscher's Principles of Political Economy, Vol. I, p. 176, Vol. II, p. 84.

CHAPTER XI.

ESTHETICS OF EXPRESSION IMAGINATION.

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Imagination is the air of mind. - BAILLEY.

The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling,

Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven,

And, as imagination bodies forth

The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen

Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing

A local habitation and a name.- SHAKESPEARE.

N a book of topography or a tourist's journal, we might read, 'See yon row of pines at twilight eve, how, shorn and bowed, they bend before the sea-blast.' Now observe the magical effect of union with the spiritual, or rather of refraction through it:

Yon row of bleak and visionary pines,

By twilight glimpse discerned, mark! how they flee
From the fierce sea-blast, all their tresses wild
Streaming before them.-Shakespeare.

Where?

So the landscape painter, omitting the details, gives us only the spirit and splendor. Prose reality values Nature as substance; poetic, as symbol. Note, in the following stanza on the death of Keats, the vitalizing and exalting power of mind, when, penetrated with its sentiment, it projects it outward, as if heaven and earth were but the painted vicissitudes of soul:

Morning sought

Her eastern watch-tower, and, her hair unbound,
Wet with the tears that should adorn the ground,
Dimmed the aerial eyes that kindle day;

Afar the melancholy thunder moaned,

Pale Ocean in unquiet slumber lay,

And the wild winds flew 'round, sobbing in their dismay.

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Keats, contemplating the figures sculptured upon a Grecian urn, sees a marble youth in pursuit of a marble maid, and finds in that suspended scene a type or picture of his own teased aspiration-finds consolation, too, in the thought that, though the youth can never succeed in his chase, he can never fall any farther behind in it. What finer instance of moulding and interpretative energy?

Fair youth beneath the trees, thou canst not leave
Thy song, nor ever can those trees be bare;

Bold lover, never, never canst thou kiss,

Though winning near the goal! Yet do not grieve:
She cannot fade though thou hast not thy bliss,
Forever wilt thou love and she be fair.

That faculty which thus perceives the symbolic character of things; which transfuses the inanimate with an intelligent presence and depicts it in living movement; or collects and fuses objects and facts, and weaves over them a vascular web of emotional relationship, aiming at a new and fairer whole, because speaking after the ideal and not after the apparent - is the Imagination.

The word means an imaging, or a marking of likenesses. The power itself gives form to thought- not necessarily uttered form, but form capable of being uttered in shape or in sound, or in any mode upon which the senses can lay hold. Because it resembles most the prime operation of the power of God, it has been called the creative faculty, and its exercise creation.

Its function is to replace in thought, former perceptions and sensations, to combine them, not according to the original and actual, but rather according to the mind's own desire and standard; so that while the groundwork of the representation is something which has been, at some time, an object of perception, the picture itself, as it stands before the mind in its completeness, is not a copy of anything actually perceived, but a creation of the

mind's own. Time, place, and circumstance fall out, or are varied at will; the scene is laid when and where we like; the incidents follow each other no longer in their actual order, but are conformed to the pleasure of the artist. Thus Shelley, taking the sky, the abstraction of death, and the inventions of his fellow-men in glass, in color, in dome, and putting them together according to the harmony of truths embodied in each, presents us this figure of the destroyer that, walking aloft, treads out this lifebubble of colors:

The one remains; the many change and pass;

Heaven's light forever shines; earth's shadows fly;
Life like a dome of many colored glass,

Stains the white radiance of eternity,

Until death tramples it to fragments.

Here is a new thought-form, though none of the material that goes to make it has been originated. Generally speaking, the imagination takes forms already existing, and gathers them about a thought so much higher than they, that it can group and subordinate and harmonize them into a whole which shall unveil or render visible that thought.

Of imagination as the faculty of recombining or constructing anew the materials which experience and observation furnish for it to work with or upon, there are several varieties. When it combines to classify and generalize, to invent, to discover, or to instruct, it is scientific. When it deals ideally and suggestively with the higher objects of nature and spirit, exciting the nobler feelings and calling into action the nobler capacities of man, it is poetic, or artistic, by eminence. In the former case, the result is a formula, whose paramount purpose is to be as brief and comprehensive as possible; as, 'Evolution is a process from the uniform and indefinite to the multiform and definite.' In the latter, the result is a form

of forms, whose controlling aim is, rather, to be as beautiful as possible; as Tennyson's In Memoriam. Both may engage themselves on the same set of facts. The novel is thus a joint product of science and art. The great modern novelist is at once scientific and poetic: and here it seems to me, in the novel, we have the meeting, the reconciliation, the kiss, of science and poetry. For example, George Eliot, having with those keen eyes of hers collected and analyzed and sorted many facts of British life, binds them together into a true poetic synthesis, in, for instance, Daniel Deronda, when instead of giving us the ultimate relations of all her facts in the shape of a formula, like that of evolution, she gives them to us in the beautiful creation of Gwendolen Harleth and all the other striking forms which move through the book as embodiments in flesh and blood of the scientific relations between all her facts.':

When the ends are for mere pleasure, and the associations, as well as the emotions excited, are not especially ennobling, the poetic activity becomes fancy. Fancy is an exertion upon a smaller scale of the same faculty of which imagination is the higher element. Fancy is superficial, joins by accidental resemblance, and amuses us. Imagination is central, uses an organic classification, and expands us. Though both can be grave and gay, the more natural sphere of the one is comedy; of the other, tragedy.

When the action of reason is nearly suspended, or permanently set aside, as in reverie, dreaming, somnambulism, and insanity, we have phantasy, whose effects or products, severed from all relations of place, time, or previous cognition, are simply grotesque, or, as we say, fantastic.

When, again, we form for our pursuit an ideal of man1 Sidney Lanier.

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