components, subassemblies, and assemblies or perform a final check on the finished product. Depending on the skill level of the inspectors, they may also set up and test equipment, calibrate precision instruments, or repair defective products.

Inspectors, testers, and graders rely on a number of tools to perform their jobs. Many use micrometers, calipers, alignment gauges, and other instruments to check and compare the dimensions of parts against the parts' specifications. They may also operate electronic equipment, such as measuring machines, which use sensitive probes to measure a part's dimensional accuracy. Inspectors testing electrical devices may use voltmeters, ammeters, and oscilloscopes to test insulation, current flow, and resistance.

Inspectors mark, tag, or note problems. They may reject defective items outright, send them for repair or correction, or fix minor problems themselves. If the product checks out, they may screw on a nameplate, tag it, stamp a serial number, or certify it in some other way. Inspectors, testers, and graders record the results of their inspections, compute the percentage of defects and other statistical parameters, and prepare inspection and test reports. Some electronic inspection equipment automatically provides test reports containing these inspection results. When defects are found, inspectors notify supervisors, and help analyze and correct the production problems.

Recent emphasis on quality control in manufacturing has meant that inspection is becoming more fully integrated into the production process. For example, some companies have set up teams of inspection and production workers to jointly review and improve product quality. In addition, many companies now use self-monitoring production machines to ensure that the output is produced within quality

Inspectors, testers, and graders check products for imperfections.

standards. Self-monitoring machines can alert inspectors to production problems, and automatically repair defects in some cases. Many firms have completely automated inspection with the help of advanced vision systems, using machinery installed at one or several points in the production process. Inspectors in these firms calibrate and monitor the equipment, review output, and perform random product checks.

Working Conditions

Working conditions vary by industry and establishment size. As a result, some inspectors examine similar products for an entire shift, whereas others examine a variety of items. In manufacturing, most inspectors remain at one work station; in transportation, some travel from place to place to do inspections. Inspectors in some industries may be on their feet all day and may have to lift heavy objects, whereas in other industries they sit during most of their shift and do little strenuous work. Workers in heavy manufacturing plants may be exposed to the noise and grime of machinery; in other plants, inspectors work in clean, air-conditioned environments, suitable for carrying out controlled tests.

Some inspectors work evenings, nights, or weekends. In these cases, shift assignments generally are made on the basis of seniority. Overtime may be required to meet production goals.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements vary, based on the responsibilities of the inspector, tester, or grader. For workers who perform simple "pass/fail" tests of products, a high school diploma is preferred and may be required for some jobs. Simple jobs may be filled by beginners provided with inhouse training. Training for new inspectors may cover the use of special meters, gauges, computers, or other instruments; quality control techniques; blueprint reading; safety; and reporting requirements. There are some postsecondary training programs in testing, but many employers prefer to train inspectors on the job.

Complex precision inspecting positions are filled by experienced assemblers, machine operators, or mechanics who already have a thorough knowledge of the products and production processes. To advance to these positions, experienced workers may need training in statistical process control, new automation, or the company's quality assurance policies. As automated inspection equipment becomes more common, computer skills are increasingly important.

In general, inspectors, testers, and graders need mechanical aptitude, math skills, and good hand-eye coordination and vision. Advancement for these workers frequently takes the form of higher pay. They also may advance to inspector of more complex products, supervisor, or to related positions, such as purchaser of materials and equipment.

Job Outlook

Like many other occupations concentrated in the manufacturing sector, employment of inspectors, testers, and graders is expected to decline through the year 2008. The projected decline stems primarily from the growth of automated inspection and the redistribution of quality control responsibilities from inspectors to production workers. In spite of declining employment, a large number of job openings will arise due to turnover in this large occupation. Many of these jobs, however, will be available only to experienced production workers with advanced skills.

Employment of inspectors, testers, and graders will be significantly affected by the increasing focus on quality in American industry. The

emphasis on quality is leading manufacturers to invest in automated inspection equipment and to take a more systematic approach to quality inspection. Continued improvements in technologies, such as spectrophotometers and computer-assisted visual inspection systems, allow firms to effectively automate simple inspection tasks, increasing worker productivity and reducing the demand for inspectors. As the price of these technologies continues to decrease, they will become more costeffective for firms and will be more widely implemented in a broad range of industries.

Apart from automation, firms are improving quality by building it into the production process. This has led firms to redistribute many inspection duties from inspectors, testers, and graders to other production workers who monitor quality at every stage of the process. In addition, the growing implementation of statistical process control is resulting in "smarter" inspection. Using this system, firms survey the sources and incidence of defects so these firms can better focus their efforts and reduce production of defective products.

In many industries, however, automation is not being aggressively pursued as an alternative to manual inspection. When key inspection elements are oriented to size, such as length, width, or thickness, automation may play some role in the future. But when taste, smell, texture, appearance, or product performance are important, inspection will probably continue to be done by humans. Employment of inspectors, testers,

and graders is expected to increase in fast-growing industries, such as wholesale trade, and in business services as more manufacturers and industrial firms hire temporary inspectors to increase the flexibility of their staffing strategies.

Earnings

Median hourly earnings of inspectors, testers, and graders were $11.28 in 1998. The middle 50 percent earned between $8.63 and $15.53 an hour. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $6.78 an hour; the highest 10 percent earned more than $20.40 an hour. Median hourly earnings of transportation inspectors in the railroad industry were $18.10 in 1997.

Related Occupations

Workers who inspect products or services include construction and building inspectors, who examine a variety of structures, and inspectors and compliance officers, who inspect and enforce rules on matters such as health, safety, food, licensing, or finance.

Sources of Additional Information

For general information about inspectors, testers, and graders, contact: ☛ The National Tooling and Machining Association, 9300 Livingston Rd., Fort Washington, MD 20744. Internet: http://www.ntma.org ☛ The American Society for Quality, 611 East Wisconsin Ave., P.O. Box 3005, Milwaukee, WI 53201-3005. Internet: http://www.asq.org

Jewelers and Precious Stone and Metal Workers

(O*NET 89123A, 89123B, 89126C, 89126E, 89126K, and 89926A)

Significant Points

About one-third of all jewelers were self-employed; many operated their own store or repair shop, and some specialized in designing and creating custom jewelry.

Slightly over half of all salaried jewelers worked in retail establishments, while one-third were employed in manufacturing plants.

Although employment is expected to decline slightly, prospects should be excellent as more people retire or leave the occupation.

Nature of the Work

Jewelers design, manufacture, repair, and adjust rings, necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and other jewelry. They use a variety of common and specialized handtools to mold and shape metal and set gemstones. Increasingly, jewelers use computers to design jewelry and lasers to perform very delicate and intricate work.

Jewelers usually specialize in one or more areas: Designing and manufacturing new pieces of jewelry, gem cutting, setting and polishing stones, or repairing broken items. Jewelers who are knowledgeable about the quality, characteristics, and value of gemstones also sell jewelry and provide appraisal services. In small retail or repair shops, jewelers may be involved in all aspects of the work. Jewelers who own or manage stores or shops also hire and train employees; order, market, and sell merchandise; and perform other managerial duties.

The work of jewelers requires a high degree of skill, precision, and attention to detail regardless of the type of establishment or work setting. Typical repair work includes enlarging or reducing ring sizes,

resetting stones, and replacing broken clasps and mountings. Some jewelers also design or make their own jewelry. Following their own designs, or those created by designers or customers, they begin by shaping the metal or carving wax to make a model for casting the metal. The individual parts are then soldered together, and the jeweler may mount a diamond or other gem, or engrave a design into the metal. Although jewelers mainly use computers for inventory control, some jewelry designers also use them to design and create customized pieces according to their customers' wishes. With the aid of computers, customers visualize different combinations of styles, cuts, shanks, sizes, and stones to create their own pieces.

In manufacturing, jewelers usually specialize in a single operation. Some may make models or tools for the jewelry that is to be produced. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones, polishing, or engraving. A growing number of jewelers use lasers for cutting and improving the quality of stones, intricate engraving or design work, and ID inscription. Some manufacturing firms use CAD/CAM (computeraided design and manufacturing) to facilitate product design and automate some steps in the mold and model-making process. As such systems become more affordable, their use should increase. In larger manufacturing establishments, jewelers may be required to perform several tasks as new manufacturing processes make their way through the industry.

Working Conditions

A jeweler's work involves a great deal of concentration and attention to detail. Working on precious stones and metals, while trying to satisfy customers' and employers' demands for speed and quality, can cause fatigue or stress. However, the use of more ergonomically correct jewelers' benches has eliminated the strain and discomfort formerly caused by spending long periods bending over a workbench in one position. In larger manufacturing plants and some smaller repair shops, chemicals, sharp or pointed tools, and jewelers' torches pose potential safety threats and may cause injury if proper care is not taken.

In repair shops, jewelers usually work alone with little supervision. In retail stores, on the other hand, they may talk with customers about repairs, perform custom design work, and even do some sales work.

Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers held about 30,000 jobs in 1998. About one-third of all these workers were self-employed; many operated their own store or repair shop, and some specialized in designing and creating custom jewelry.

One-half of all salaried jewelers worked in retail establishments, while one-third were employed in manufacturing plants. Although jewelry stores and repair shops can be found in every city and many small towns, most job opportunities are in larger metropolitan areas. Many jewelers employed in manufacturing work in Rhode Island, New York, and Los Angeles.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers' skills usually are learned in vocational or technical schools, through correspondence courses, or informally on the job. Colleges and art and design schools also offer programs that can lead to a bachelor's or master's degree of fine arts in jewelry design. Formal training in the basic skills of the trade enhances one's employment and advancement opportunities. Many employers prefer jewelers with design, repair, and sales skills. Some aspiring jewelers begin working as clerks in department stores, and transfer to jobs in jewelry shops or manufacturing firms after gaining experience.

For those interested in working in a jewelry store or repair shop, vocational and technical schools or courses offered by local colleges are the best sources of training. In these programs, which vary in length from 6 months to 1 year, students learn the use and care of jewelers' tools and machines and basic jewelry making and repairing skills, such as design, casting, stone setting, and polishing. Technical school courses also cover topics including blueprint reading, math, and shop theory. To enter most technical school or college programs, a high school diploma or its equivalent is required. Because computer-aided design is used increasingly in the jewelry field, it is recommended that students-especially those interested in design and manufacturing-obtain training in CAD.

The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) offers programs lasting about 6 months and self-paced correspondence courses that may last longer. The GIA offers the graduate gemologist (G.G.) and graduate jeweler (G.J.) diplomas, along with a variety of courses in gemology and jewelry manufacturing and design. Advanced programs cover a wide range of topics, including the identification and grading of diamonds and gemstones.

Most employers feel that vocational and technical school graduates need several more years of supervised, on-the-job training to refine their repair skills and learn more about the operation of the store or shop. In addition, some employers encourage workers to improve their skills by enrolling in short-term technical school courses such as sample making, wax carving, or gemology. Many employers pay all or part of the cost of this additional training.

In jewelry manufacturing plants, workers traditionally develop their skills through informal apprenticeships and on-the-job training. This training lasts 3 to 4 years, depending on the difficulty of the specialty. Training usually focuses on casting, stonesetting, modelmaking, or engraving. In recent years, a growing number of technical schools and colleges have begun to offer training designed for jewelers working in manufacturing. Like employers in retail trade, though, those in manufacturing now prefer graduates of these programs because they are familiar with the production process, requiring less on-the-job training. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good hand-eye coordination, patience, and concentration. Artistic ability and fashion consciousness are major assets because jewelry must be stylish and attractive. Those who work in jewelry stores have frequent contact with customers and should be neat, personable, and knowledgeable about the merchandise. In addition, employers require someone of good character because jewelers work with very valuable materials.

Advancement opportunities are limited and greatly dependent on an individual's skill and initiative. In manufacturing, some jewelers advance to supervisory jobs, such as master jeweler or head jeweler, but for most, advancement takes the form of higher pay doing the same job. Jewelers who work in jewelry stores or repair shops may become managers; some open their own businesses.

For those interested in starting their own business, they first should establish themselves and build a reputation for their work within the jewelry trade. Then, they can obtain sufficient credit from jewelry suppliers and wholesalers to acquire the necessary inventory. Also, because the jewelry business is highly competitive, jewelers who plan to open their own store should have experience in selling, as well as knowledge of marketing and business management. Courses in these areas often are available from technical schools and community colleges.

Job Outlook

Employment of jewelers and precious stone and metal workers is expected to decline through 2008. Employment opportunities, however, should be excellent, reflecting current shortages in the occupation and the need to replace jewelers who retire or leave the labor force for other reasons.

The demand for jewelry largely depends on the amount of disposable income people have. Therefore, the increasing number of affluent individuals, working women, double-income households, and fashion conscious men are expected to keep jewelry sales strong. Traditionally, job opportunities for jewelers depended largely on jewelry sales and demand for jewelry repair services, which makes up approximately half of a retail jewelry store's revenues. Now, however, non-traditional jewelry marketers, such as discount stores, mail-order catalogue companies, and television shopping networks have limited the growth of sales from traditional jewelers. These types of establishments require fewer jewelers, thus limiting job opportunities. Demand for jewelers who specialize in repair work, however, should remain steady or even increase as jewelry sales increase because non-traditional vendors typically do not offer repair services.

Opportunities in jewelry stores and repair shops will be best for graduates from a jeweler or gemologist training program. Demand for repair workers will be strong because maintaining and repairing jewelry is an ongoing process, even during economic slowdowns. In fact, demand for jewelry repair may increase during recessions as people repair or restore existing pieces rather than purchase new ones.

Within manufacturing, increasing automation will adversely affect employment of low-skilled occupations, such as assembler and polisher. Automation will have a lesser impact on more creative, highly

skilled positions, such as mold and model maker. Furthermore, small manufacturers, which typify the industry, will have an increasingly difficult time competing with the larger manufacturers when it comes to supplying large retailers. Because of recent international trade agreements, exports are increasing modestly as manufacturers become more competitive in foreign markets. However, imports from foreign manufacturers are increasing more rapidly than exports due to these same agreements.

Earnings

Median annual earnings for jewelers and precious stone and metal workers were $23,820 in 1998. The middle 50 percent earned between $17,110 and $32,540. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $12,670 and the highest 10 percent earned over $41,160.

According to the Manufacturing Jewelers and Suppliers of America, the median average hourly wage of jewelers in companies with more than 10 employees was $13.62 in 1998. Beginners in jewelry factories usually start at considerably less pay than experienced workers do. As they become more proficient, they receive raises.

Most jewelers enjoy a variety of benefits including reimbursement from their employers for work-related courses and discounts on jewelry purchases.

Related Occupations

Jewelers and precious stone and metal workers do precision handwork. Other skilled workers who do similar jobs include polishers, dental laboratory technicians, hand engravers, and watch makers and repairers.

Sources of Additional Information

Information on job opportunities and training programs for jewelers is available from:

☛ Gemological Institute of America, 5345 Armada Dr., Carlsbad, CA 92008.

California Institute of Jewelry Training, 5800 Winding Way, Carmichael, CA 95608.

General career information is available from:

Jewelers of America, 1185 Avenue of the Americas, 30th Floor, New York, NY 10036.

Manufacturing Jewelers and Suppliers of America, 1 State St., 6th Floor, Providence, RI 02908-5035.

To receive a list of technical schools accredited by the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology which have programs in jewelry design, contact:

Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology, 2101 Wilson Blvd., Suite 302, Arlington, VA 22201.

Machinists and Numerical Control Machine Tool Programmers

(O*NET 25111 and 89108)

Significant Points

Formal training in high schools, vocational schools, or community colleges is typical; many entrants have previously worked as machine tool operators or

setters.

Job opportunities will be excellent, as employers continue to report difficulties in finding workers with the necessary skills and knowledge.

Nature of the Work

Machinists use machine tools, such as lathes, drill presses, and milling machines to produce precision metal parts. Although they may produce large quantities of one part, precision machinists often produce small

batches or one-of-a-kind items. They use their knowledge of the working properties of metals and their skill with machine tools to plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications.

Before they machine a part, machinists must carefully plan and prepare the operation. These workers first review blueprints or written specifications for a job. Next, they calculate where to cut or bore into the workpiece, how fast to feed the metal into the machine, and how much metal to remove. They then select tools and materials for the job, plan the sequence of cutting and finishing operations, and mark the metal stock to show where cuts should be made.

After this layout work is completed, machinists perform the necessary machining operations. They position the metal stock on the machine tool-drill presses, lathes, milling machines, or others-set the controls, and make the cuts. During the machining process, they must constantly monitor the feed and speed of the machine. Machinists also ensure that the workpiece is being properly lubricated and cooled, because the machining of metal products generates a significant amount of heat.

Some machinists, often called production machinists, may produce large quantities of one part, especially parts requiring complex operations and great precision. For unusually sophisticated procedures, expensive machinery is used. Usually, however, large numbers of parts requiring more routine operations are produced by metalworking and plastics-working machine operators. (See the statement on metalworking and plastics-working machine operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Other machinists do maintenance work-repairing or making new parts for existing machinery. To

repair a broken part, maintenance machinists may refer to blueprints and perform the same machining operations that were needed to create the original part.

Increasingly, the machine tools used to produce metal parts are computer numerically controlled (CNC)—that is, they contain computer controllers that direct the machine's operations. The controller reads a program—a coded list of the steps necessary to perform a specific machining job—and runs the machine tool's mechanisms through the steps. The introduction of CNC machine tools has changed the nature of the work of machinists. These machines enable machinists to be more productive and to produce parts with a level of precision that is not possible with traditional machining techniques. Furthermore, because precise movements are recorded in a program that can be saved and used again in the future, they allow this high level of precision to be consistently repeated. CNC machine tools also allow various functions to be performed with one setup, thereby reducing the need for additional, labor-intensive setups.

The quality of the products these machines produce depends largely on the programs, which may be produced by machinists or by CNC machine tool programmers (CNC programmers). CNC programmers begin as machinists do-by analyzing blueprints, computing the size and position of the cuts, determining the sequence of machine operations, selecting tools, and calculating the machine speed and feed rates. They then write the program in the language of the machine's controller and store it. Skilled machinists may also do programming. In fact, as computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software becomes more userfriendly and CNC machines are more widely used, machinists are increasingly expected to perform this function.

Machinists work alone or with CNC programmers to check new programs and ensure that machinery will function properly and the output will meet specifications. Because a problem with the program could damage costly machinery and cutting tools, computer simulations may be used instead of a trial run to check the program. If errors are found, the program must be changed and re-tested until the problem is resolved. In addition, growing connectivity between computer-aided design software and CNC machine tools is raising productivity by automatically translating designs into instructions, which are understood by the computer controller on the machine tool. These new CAM technologies enable programs to be easily modified for use on other jobs with similar specifications, thereby reducing time and effort.

Working Conditions

Most machine shops are well lit and ventilated. Nevertheless, working around high-speed machine tools presents certain dangers, and workers must follow safety precautions. Machinists wear protective equipment such as safety glasses to shield against bits of flying metal and earplugs to dampen machinery noise. They must also exercise caution when handling hazardous coolants and lubricants. The job requires stamina, because machinists stand most of the day and at times may need to lift moderately heavy workpieces.

CNC programmers work in offices that typically are near, but separate from, the shop floor. These work areas are usually clean, well lit, and free of machine noise.

Most machinists and CNC programmers work a 40-hour week. Evening and weekend shifts are becoming more common as companies justify investments in more expensive machinery by extending hours of operation. Overtime is common during peak production periods.

Employment

Machinists and CNC programmers held about 434,000 jobs in 1998, with the vast majority being machinists. Most machinists work in small machining shops or in manufacturing firms that produce durable goods, such as metalworking and industrial machinery, aircraft, or motor vehicles. Maintenance machinists work in most industries that use production machinery. Although

machinists and CNC programmers work in all parts of the country, jobs are most plentiful in the Northeast, Midwest, and West Coast where manufacturing is concentrated.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

A high school or vocational school education, including courses in mathematics, blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting, is generally a prerequisite for becoming a machinist or CNC programmer. Basic knowledge of computers and electronics is also helpful because of the increased use of computer-controlled machine tools. Experience with machine tools is extremely important. In fact, many entrants to these occupations have previously worked as machine tool operators or setters. Persons interested in becoming machinists or CNC programmers should be mechanically inclined, able to work independently, and able to do highly accurate work that requires concentration and physical effort.

Machinist training varies from formal apprenticeship and postsecondary programs to informal on-the-job training. Apprentice programs consist of shop training and related classroom instruction. In shop training, apprentices learn filing, handtapping, and dowel fitting, as well as the operation of various machine tools. Classroom instruction includes math, physics, blueprint reading, mechanical drawing, and shop practices. In addition, as machine shops have increased their use of computer-controlled equipment, training in the operation and programming of CNC machine tools has become essential. Such formal apprenticeships are relatively rare, however, as a growing number of machinists and CNC programmers receive most of their formal training from community or technical colleges.

To boost the skill level of machinists and to create a more uniform standard of competency, a number of training facilities and colleges have recently begun implementing curriculums incorporating national skills standards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS). After completing such a curriculum and passing a performance requirement and written exam, a NIMS credential is granted to trainees, providing formal recognition of competency in a metalworking field. This designation can lead to advancement or confirmation of skills during a job search.

Qualifications for CNC programmers vary widely depending upon the complexity of the job. Basic requirements parallel those of machinists. Employers often prefer skilled machinists or those with technical school training. For some specialized types of programming, such as with complex parts for the aerospace or shipbuilding industries, employers may prefer individuals with a degree in engineering.

For those entering CNC programming directly, a basic knowledge of computers and electronics is necessary, and experience with machine tools is extremely helpful. Classroom training includes an introduction to numerical control, the basics of programming, and more complex topics, such as computer-aided manufacturing. Trainees start writing simple programs under the direction of an experienced programmer. Although machinery manufacturers are trying to standardize programming languages, there are numerous languages in use. Because of this, CNC programmers should be able to learn new programming languages.

As new automation is introduced, machinists and CNC programmers normally receive additional training to update their skills. This training is usually provided by a representative of the equipment manufacturer or a local technical school. Some employers offer tuition reimbursement for job-related courses.

Machinists and CNC programmers can advance in several ways. Experienced machinists may become CNC programmers, and some are promoted to supervisory or administrative positions in their firms. A few open their own shops.

Job Outlook

Despite slower than average employment growth, job opportunities will be excellent for machinists, as employers continue to report difficulties in finding workers with the necessary skills and knowledge to fill machining and CNC programming openings. Many job openings