Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Some terrazzo workers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of the United States. According to the limited information available, average hourly earnings-including benefits-for cement masons who belonged to a union and worked full time, ranged between $15.40 and $46.80 in 1998. Cement masons in New York, Boston, San Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and other large cities received the highest wages. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers.

Sources of Additional Information

For information about apprenticeships and work opportunities, contact local concrete or terrazzo contractors; locals of unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency.

For general information about cement masons, concrete finishers, and terrazzo workers, contact:

Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.

International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20005.

Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association of the United States and Canada, 14405 Laurel Place, Suite 300, Laurel, MD 20707.

National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 101 E. Market St., Suite 2004, Leesburg, VA 20176-3122.

Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077.

United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.

Construction Equipment Operators

(O*NET 87708, 97938, and 97956)

Significant Points

Most acquire their skills on the job, but some construction equipment operators complete formal apprenticeship programs.

Employment is expected to grow slowly due to slow overall growth in the construction industries. Workers in these occupations often have high pay rates, but many cannot work in inclement weather, thus reducing earnings.

Nature of the Work

Construction equipment operators use machinery to move construction materials, earth, and other heavy materials and to apply asphalt and concrete to roads and other substructures. Operators control equipment by moving levers or foot pedals, operating switches, or turning dials. The operation of much of this equipment is becoming more complex as a result of computerized controls. Construction equipment operators may also set up and inspect equipment, make adjustments, and perform minor repairs.

Construction equipment operators include grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators, operating engineers, and paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators. Grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators gouge out, distribute, level, and grade earth with vehicles equipped with a concave blade attached across the front. In addition to the familiar bulldozers, they operate trench excavators, road graders, and similar equipment. Operators maneuver the equipment in successive passes to raise or lower terrain to a specific grade. They may uproot trees and move large rocks while preparing the surface.

Operating engineers are unique in that they operate several different types of power construction equipment such as cranes, derricks, shovels, tractors, scrapers, pumps and hoists. They may operate cranes and derricks that lift materials, machinery, or other heavy objects from the ground. They extend or retract a horizontally mounted boom to lower, or raise a hook attached to the loadline, often in response to hand signals and radioed instructions from other workers. They also may operate excavation and loading machines equipped with scoops, shovels, or buckets that dig sand, gravel, earth, or similar materials and load it into trucks or onto conveyors. Sometimes they may drive and control industrial trucks or tractors equipped with a forklift or boom for lifting materials or hitches for pulling trailers. They also may operate and maintain air compressors, pumps, and other power equipment at construction work sites.

Paving and surfacing equipment operators use levers and other controls to operate machines that spread and level asphalt or spread and smooth concrete for roadways or other substructures. Asphalt paving machine operators turn valves to regulate the temperature and flow of asphalt onto the roadbed. They must watch that the machine distributes the paving material evenly and without voids and make sure there is a constant flow of asphalt going into the hopper. Concrete paving machine operators move levers and turn handwheels to lower an attachment that spreads, vibrates, and levels wet concrete within forms. They must observe the surface of concrete to point out low spots for workers to add concrete. They use other attachments to the machine to float the surface of the concrete, spray on a curing compound, and cut expansion joints. Tamping equipment operators operate tamping machines that compact earth and other fill materials for roadbeds. They also may operate machines with interchangeable hammers to cut or break up old pavement and drive guardrail posts into earth.

About 3 out of every 5 construction equipment operators worked in the construction industry. Many equipment operators worked in heavy construction building structures such as bridges or railroads, and substructures such as highways and streets. About one-fourth of all construction equipment operators worked in State and local government. Others, mostly grader, bulldozer, and scraper operators, worked in mining. Some also worked in manufacturing and for utility companies. A few construction equipment operators were self-employed.

Construction equipment operators work in every section of the country.

Training, other qualifications and advancement

Construction equipment operators usually learn their skills on the job. Operators need a good sense of balance, the ability to judge distance, and good eye-hand-foot coordination. Employers of construction equipment operators generally prefer to hire high school graduates, although some employers may train persons having less education to operate some types of equipment.

The more technologically advanced construction equipment has computerized controls, which require different operating skills than in the past. Operators of such equipment may need more training and some understanding of electronics. Mechanical aptitude and high school training in automobile mechanics are helpful because workers may perform some maintenance on their machines. Experience operating related mobile equipment, such as farm tractors or heavy equipment in the Armed Forces, is an asset.

Beginning construction equipment operators handle light equipment under the guidance of an experienced operator. Later, they may operate heavier equipment such as bulldozers and cranes. Some construction equipment operators, however, train in formal 3-year operating engineer apprenticeship programs administered by union-management committees of the International Union of Operating Engineers and the Associated General Contractors of America. Because apprentices learn to operate a wider variety of machines than other beginners, they usually have better job opportunities. Apprenticeship programs consist of at least 3 years, or 6,000 hours, of on-the-job training and 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction.

Private vocational schools offer instruction in the operation of certain types of construction equipment. Completion of such a program may help a person get a job as a trainee or apprentice. However, persons considering such training should check the reputation of the school among employers in the area.

Job Outlook

Overall employment of construction equipment operators is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2008. About 60 percent of these workers are concentrated in the construction industry, which is projected to grow slowly over the next ten years. Although demand for most construction equipment operators should keep pace with growth of the construction industry, increased spending on improving the Nation's infrastructure of highways, bridges, and dams should result in slightly stronger demand for paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment operators. In addition to employment growth in this occupation, many jobs openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Equipment improvements are also expected to continue to raise workers' productivity and moderate demand for skilled operators. Technological advances in hydraulics and electronics have led to better equipment that requires more skill to operate than was previously necessary. Precision computerized controls and robotics are automating many crane and tower operator and hoist and winch operator positions, slowing employment growth for operating engineers.

Employment of construction equipment operators is sensitive to fluctuations in the economy. Workers in these trades may experience periods of unemployment when the level of nonresidential construction activity falls.

Drywall consists of a thin layer of gypsum between two layers of heavy paper. It is used today for walls and ceilings in most buildings because it is both faster and cheaper to install than plaster.

There are two kinds of drywall workers: installers and finishers. Installers, also called applicators, fasten drywall panels to the inside framework of residential houses and other buildings. Finishers, or tapers, prepare these panels for painting by taping and finishing joints and imperfections.

Because drywall panels are manufactured in standard sizes-usually 4 feet by 8 or 12 feet-installers must measure, cut, and fit some pieces around doors and windows. They also saw or cut holes in panels for electrical outlets, air-conditioning units, and plumbing. After making these alterations, installers may glue, nail, or screw the wallboard panels to the wood or metal framework. Because drywall is heavy and cumbersome, a helper generally assists the installer in positioning and securing the panel. A lift is often used when placing ceiling panels.

After the drywall is installed, finishers fill joints between panels with a joint compound. Using the wide, flat tip of a special trowel, they spread the joint compound into and along each side of the joint with brushlike strokes. They immediately use the trowel to press a paper tape-used to reinforce the drywall and to hide imperfectionsinto the wet compound and to smooth away excess material. Nail and

Drywall installers must measure, cut, and fit some drywall pieces around doors and windows.

screw depressions also are covered with this compound, as are imperfections caused by the installation of air-conditioning vents and other fixtures. On large commercial projects, finishers may use automatic taping tools that apply the joint compound and tape in one step. Finishers apply second and third coats, sanding the treated areas after each coat to make them as smooth as the rest of the wall surface. This results in a very smooth and almost perfect surface. Some finishers apply textured surfaces to walls and ceilings with trowels, brushes, or spray guns.

Working Conditions

As in many other construction trades, drywall work sometimes is strenuous. Installers and finishers spend most of the day on their feet, either standing, bending, or kneeling. Some finishers use stilts to tape and finish ceiling and angle joints. Installers have to lift and maneuver heavy panels. Hazards include falls from ladders and scaffolds, and injuries from power tools. Because sanding joint compound to a smooth finish creates a great deal of dust, some finishers wear masks for protection.

Employment

Drywall installers and finishers held about 163,000 jobs in 1998. Most worked for contractors specializing in drywall installation; others worked for contractors doing many kinds of construction. Nearly 42,000 were self-employed independent contractors.

Most installers and finishers are employed in populated areas. In other areas, where there may not be enough work to keep a drywall installer employed full time, carpenters and painters usually do the drywall work.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Most drywall workers start as helpers and learn their skills on the job. Installer helpers start by carrying materials, lifting and holding panels, and cleaning up debris. Within a few weeks, they learn to measure, cut, and install materials. Eventually, they become fully experienced workers. Finisher apprentices begin by taping joints and touching up nail holes, scrapes, and other imperfections. They soon learn to install corner guards and to conceal openings around pipes. At the end of their training, drywall installers and finishers learn to estimate the cost of installing and finishing drywall.

Some drywall installers and finishers learn their trade in an apprenticeship program. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in cooperation with local contractors, administers an apprenticeship program in carpentry that includes instruction in drywall installation. In addition, local affiliates of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the National Association of Home Builders conduct training programs for nonunion workers. The International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades conducts a 2-year apprenticeship program for drywall finishers.

Employers prefer high school graduates who are in good physical condition, but they frequently hire applicants with less education. High school or vocational school courses in carpentry provide a helpful background for drywall work. Regardless of educational background, installers must be good at simple arithmetic.

Drywall workers with a few years' experience and leadership ability may become supervisors. Some workers start their own contracting businesses.

Job Outlook

Replacement needs will account for almost all job openings for drywall installers and finishers through the year 2008. Thousands of jobs will open up each year because of the need to replace workers who transfer to jobs in other occupations or leave the labor force. Turnover in this occupation is very high, reflecting the lack of formal training requirements and the fluctuations of the business cycle, to which the construction industry is very sensitive. Because of their relatively weak

attachment to the occupation, many workers with limited skills leave the occupation when they find they dislike the work or because they can't find steady employment.

Additional job openings will be created by the rising demand for drywall work. Employment is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations, reflecting the slow growth of new construction and renovation. In addition to traditional interior work, the growing acceptance of insulated exterior wall systems will provide additional jobs for drywall workers.

Despite the growing use of exterior panels, most drywall installation and finishing is done indoors. Therefore, these workers lose less work time because of inclement weather than some other construction workers. Nevertheless, they may be unemployed between construction projects and during downturns in construction activity.

Earnings

In 1998, the median hourly earnings of drywall installers and finishers were $14.38. The middle 50 percent earned between $11.34 and $19.22. The lowest 10 percent earned less that $9.04 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $24.47.

Trainees usually started at about half the rate paid to experienced workers and received wage increases as they became more highly skilled.

Some contractors pay these workers according to the number of panels they install or finish per day; others pay an hourly rate. A 40hour week is standard, but sometimes the workweek may be longer. Those who are paid hourly rates receive premium pay for overtime.

Related Occupations

Drywall installers and finishers combine strength and dexterity with precision and accuracy to make materials fit according to a plan. Other occupations that require similar abilities include carpenters, floor covering installers, form builders, insulation workers, and plasterers and

stucco masons.

Nature of the Work

Electricity is essential for light, power, air-conditioning, and refrigeration. Electricians install, connect, test, and maintain electrical systems for a variety of purposes, including climate control, security, and communications. They also may install and maintain the electronic controls for machines in business and industry. Although most electricians specialize in either construction or maintenance, a growing number do both.

Electricians work with blueprints when they install electrical systems in factories, office buildings, homes, and other structures. Blueprints indicate the location of circuits, outlets, load centers, panel boards, and other equipment. Electricians must follow the National Electric Code and comply with State and local building codes when they install these systems. In factories and offices, they first place conduit (pipe or tubing) inside designated partitions, walls, or other concealed areas. They also fasten to the wall small metal or plastic boxes that will house electrical switches and outlets. They then pull insulated wires or cables through the conduit to complete circuits between these boxes. In lighter construction, such as residential, plastic-covered wire usually is used rather than conduit.

Regardless of the type of wire used, electricians connect it to circuit breakers, transformers, or other components. They join the wires by twisting ends together with pliers, and covering the ends with special plastic connectors. When stronger connections are required, electricians may use an electric "soldering gun" to melt metal onto the twisted wires, which they then cover with durable electrical tape. After they finish the wiring, they use testing equipment, such as ohmmeters, voltmeters, and oscilloscopes, to check the circuits

Sources of Additional Information

For information about work opportunities in drywall application and finishing, contact local drywall installation contractors; a local of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; a State or local chapter of the Associated Builders and Contractors; or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency.

For details about job qualifications and training programs in drywall application and finishing, write to:

Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc., 1300 North 17th St., Rosslyn, VA 22209.

Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.

International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.

☛ United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.

Electricians

(O*NET 87202A and 87202C)

Significant Points

Job opportunities are expected to be very good for qualified electricians.

Most electricians acquire their skills by completing a formal 4-or 5-year apprenticeship program.

In contrast to other construction trades, about onethird of all electricians work in industries other than construction.

Electricians need color vision because wires are usually identified by color.

for proper connections, ensuring electrical compatibility and safety of components.

In addition to wiring a building's electrical system, electricians may install coaxial or fiber optic cable for computers and other telecommunications equipment. A growing number of electricians installs telephone, computer wiring and equipment, and fire alarm and security systems. They also may connect motors to electrical power and install electronic controls for industrial equipment.

Maintenance work varies greatly, depending on where the electrician is employed. Electricians who specialize in residential work may rewire a home and replace an old fuse box with a new circuit breaker to accommodate additional appliances. Those who work in large factories may repair motors, transformers, generators, and electronic controllers on machine tools and industrial robots. Those in office buildings and small plants may repair all types of electrical equipment.

Maintenance electricians spend much of their time in preventive maintenance. They periodically inspect equipment, and locate and correct problems before breakdowns occur. Electricians may also advise management on whether continued operation of equipment could be hazardous or not. When needed, they install new electrical equipment. When breakdowns occur, they must make the necessary repairs as quickly as possible in order to minimize inconvenience. Electricians may replace items such as circuit breakers, fuses, switches, electrical and electronic components, or wire. When working with complex electronic devices, they may work with engineers, engineering technicians, or industrial machinery repairers. (For information about each of these occupations, see the statements located elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Electricians use handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, knives, and hacksaws. They also use power tools and testing equipment such as oscilloscopes, ammeters, and test lamps.

Working Conditions

Electricians' work is sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods of time and frequently work on ladders and scaffolds. Their working environment varies, depending on the type of job. Some may work in dusty, dirty, hot, or wet conditions, or in confined areas, ditches or other uncomfortable places. Electricians risk injury from electrical shock, falls, and cuts; to avoid injuries, they must follow strict safety procedures. Some electricians may have to travel to job sites, which may be up to 100 miles away.

Most electricians work a standard 40-hour week, although overtime may be required. Those in maintenance work may have to work nights, on weekends, and be on call. Companies that operate 24 hours a day may employ three shifts of electricians. Generally, the first shift is primarily responsible for routine maintenance, while the other shifts perform preventive maintenance.

Employment

Electricians held about 656,000 jobs in 1998. About two-thirds were employed in the construction industry. Others worked as maintenance electricians and were employed in virtually every industry. In addition, about 1 out of 10 electricians was self-employed.

Because of the widespread need for electrical services, jobs for electricians are found in all parts of the country.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Most people learn the electrical trade by completing a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship program. Apprenticeship gives trainees a thorough knowledge of all aspects of the trade and generally improves their ability to find a job. Although more electricians are trained through apprenticeship than workers in other construction trades, some still learn their skills informally, on the job.

Large apprenticeship programs are usually sponsored by joint training committees made up of local unions of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, and local chapters of the National Electrical Contractors Association. Training may also be

provided by company management committees of individual electrical contracting companies and by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and the Independent Electrical Contractors. Because of the comprehensive training received, those who complete apprenticeship programs qualify to do both maintenance and construction work.

The typical large apprenticeship program provides at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year, and 8,000 hours of on-thejob training over the course of the apprenticeship. In the classroom, apprentices learn blueprint reading, electrical theory, electronics, mathematics, electrical code requirements, and safety and first aid practices. They also receive specialized training in welding, communications, fire alarm systems, and cranes and elevators. On the job, under the supervision of experienced electricians, apprentices must demonstrate mastery of the electrician's work. At first, they drill holes, set anchors, and set up conduit. Later, they measure, fabricate, and install conduit, as well as install, connect, and test wiring, outlets, and switches. They also learn to set up and draw diagrams for entire electrical systems.

Those who do not enter a formal apprenticeship program can begin to learn the trade informally by working as helpers for experienced electricians. While learning to install conduit, connect wires, and test circuits, helpers also learn safety practices. Many helpers supplement this training with trade school or correspondence courses.

Regardless of how one learns the trade, previous training is very helpful. High school courses in mathematics, electricity, electronics, mechanical drawing, science, and shop provide a good background. Special training offered in the Armed Forces and by postsecondary technical schools also is beneficial. All applicants should be in good health and have at least average physical strength. Agility and dexterity also are important. Good color vision is needed because workers must frequently identify electrical wires by color.

Most apprenticeship sponsors require applicants for apprentice positions to be at least 18 years old and have a high school diploma or its equivalent. For those interested in becoming maintenance electricians, a background in electronics is increasingly important because of the growing use of complex electronic controls on manufacturing equipment.

Most localities require electricians to be licensed. Although licensing requirements vary from area to area, electricians usually must pass an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory, the National Electrical Code, and local electric and building codes.

Electricians periodically take courses offered by their employer or union to keep abreast of changes in the National Electrical Code, materials, or methods of installation.

Experienced electricians can become supervisors and then superintendents. Those with sufficient capital and management skills may start their own contracting business, although this may require an electrical contractor's license.

Job Outlook

Job opportunities for skilled electricians are expected to be very good as the growth in demand outpaces the supply of workers trained in this craft. There is expected to be a shortage of skilled workers during the next decade because of the anticipated smaller pool of young workers entering training programs.

Employment of electricians is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2008. Nearly two-thirds of wage and salaried electricians are concentrated in the construction industry, which is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all industries. Nevertheless, as the population and economy grow, more electricians will be needed to install and maintain electrical devices and wiring in homes, factories, offices, and other structures. New technologies also are expected to continue to stimulate the demand for these workers. Increasingly, buildings will be prewired during construction to accommodate use of computers and telecommunications equipment. More and more factories will be using robots and automated manufacturing systems. Installation of this equipment, which is expected to increase, should also stimulate demand for electricians. Additional jobs will be created by rehabilitation and retrofitting of existing structures.