1. PREPARING THE SUBJECT.

56. Defining, or Restricting, the Subject. The subjects usually assigned to the young, or chosen by them, are too wide and consequently too vague. Let us suppose, for example, the subject to be Ambition. What is a young writer to do with it? Either it suggests nothing at all, or it suggests everything at once, without aim or plan. Whereas, if it be properly restricted, that is, defined or narrowed, it becomes at once more manageable. Thus, it may be restricted to Ambition in School Work, or to Ambition in Athletic Contests. On the other hand, if the writer wishes to give to the subject an historical turn, he may limit it to Ambition in Alexander the Great, in Hannibal, in Julius Cæsar, in Napoleon.

As a second example, let us take George Washington. This may be restricted to Washington in His Youth, or to Washington at Valley Forge, or to Washington as President.

In like manner Benjamin Franklin may be restricted to Franklin as a Boy and Young Man, or to Franklin in France, or to Franklin and the Kite.

Let us suppose the subject to be Describe the Town in which You Live. This may be handled in many different ways. The writer may describe the town with regard to the excellence of its architecture and the beauty of the surrounding country; or he may describe the town with regard to its trade and manufactures; or with regard to its population and municipal government.

In general, the narrower, more definite the subject, the easier it is to handle. The first direction, therefore, is this:

Before touching pen to paper, look at the subject deliberately, turn it over in your mind, see how it may be divided, recognize the various aspects under which it may be treated, and then select those divisions or those aspects which seem to you the most promising.

57. Collecting Items.-This process has been aptly described as "surrounding the subject with questions.” Our

knowledge and views upon a subject are usually dormant ; before we begin to write, we must wake them up. The process may be illustrated by some examples:

VIEW FROM THE BRIDGE.

Is the bridge of wood, of iron, of stone? What kind of water does it cross? Is it a country bridge, or does it connect parts of a city or a town? How does it compare in size with other bridges? How long has it been built? Anything peculiar in its appearance?

How does the view up stream differ from the view down? Do vessels pass under it, or through it (draw)?

Is there much traffic over the bridge? Does this traffic vary much from day to day, or at different hours of the day? What persons use the bridge most?

What near objects most conspicuous from the bridge? What distant objects? Any of these objects worthy of special description? Is the general outlook from the bridge attractive, or unattractive? Why?

Any interesting stories associated with the bridge?

[In like manner may be treated the view from a church-tower, spire, or other elevation.]

A DAY IN THE CITY.

[BY ONE LIVING IN THE COUNTRY.]

How did I get to town-by railroad, steamboat, wagon, or afoot? First object that arrested my attention in the city? Appearance of streets in general, wide or narrow, well or badly kept? Of the buildings in general?

General appearance of persons in the street-well or badly dressed? Any indications of poverty, of wrong-doing? Appearance and conduct of the police?

How did the boys and girls compare, in looks and conduct, with my home-acquaintances ?

VISIT TO A FACTORY.

Location of building? Size, appearance outside, inside? What articles manufactured? Water-power used, or steam, or electricity?

Rooms clean and well ventilated? How many employees? Both men and women? Any children? If so, how old? General appearance of the employees?

What part of the machinery, what process, interested me most?

Have the employees a reading-room, or any other place or means of entertainment, provided by the employer?

THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY.

How much time given to it in our school? How much time given to map-drawing? Are we taught the geography of our neighborhood, county, State? How much are we expected to know of the United States? Of other countries?

What do we learn of the influence of rivers, lakes, mountains, winds, rain, upon the climate, upon vegetable and animal life, upon public health? What are the peculiar features of our neighborhood?

Difference between political geography and physical? Value of both in studying history?

Contrast between map of United States in 1857 and map at present time?

Similar contrast in maps of Africa?

MY LAST VACATION.

Spent at home, or away?

any study or other work?

Wholly in amusement, or did I accomplish Let me recall one day as a sample.

To what extent has the vacation done me good? Did I need the rest or change? What would have been the effect had I spent every morning in reviewing a subject in which I am deficient?

How did my schoolmates spend their vacation? between myself and them?

Any difference

SLANG.

What is meant by slang? What kinds of persons use it habitually? What kinds of persons are careful to avoid it? Do I hear much in my daily life?

Why should any one use slang? Does any good come of it? Any harm?

What is the opposite of slang? Wherein does slang differ from bad grammar? How are both treated in school? Why?

Does the habit of using slang have any effect upon politeness, neatncss, self-respect, the respect due to others?

THE ADVANTAGES OF TRAVEL.

Does this mean travel in general, or my personal experience? How much have I travelled, and where? How much for pleasure, for business, for health?

How much knowledge of men and places have I gained from my travels? Which trip was especially pleasant or profitable? Why? What books of

How does ordinary travel differ from exploration? travel have I read? Which have interested me most?

How does travel now differ from travel ninety years ago? Some facts illustrating the hardships of travel in this country about 1810.

In these examples, the order in which the questions are set down is not to be regarded as an outline of the composition. Nor are the questions here grouped together to be regarded as forming a paragraph. The questions are set down merely in the order in which they might occur to any mind just beginning to look at the subject.

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ners.

Questioning" should be a regular class-exercise for beginFor example, let the teacher spend the first half of the hour in discussing and restricting the subject with the scholars, and in questioning them and leading them on to questioning for themselves. Then let the scholars spend the remaining half of the hour in writing down rapidly their answers to such of the questions as seem to them to represent their views of the subject. At the next hour the teacher should return these embryonic sketches with corrections.

Such a process is necessarily slow; yet, within reasonable limits, the slower the better. In composition, as in other arts, the first movements are to be mastered patiently and deliberately. Besides, the questioning-method is the best means of enforcing the doctrine that writing should begin with thinking. If the beginner can only learn to think systematically under the teacher's guidance and stimulus, the battle is more than half won.

58. Grouping Items.-After the student has collected a sufficient number of items, his next step will be to sort them into groups with reference to the composition as a whole. This grouping is really the first step in composing, and is perhaps the most important of all; for it implies that the student is able to survey the subject and determine the size and value of each part in its relation to all the other parts.

Grouping means, in fact, thinking out the plan for the whole -arranging one's views and ideas in an order which the reader can readily perceive and estimate.

Such arrangement will depend, in good measure, upon the nature of the subject.

In Description and Narration the writer must determine which feature or incident is the most striking or the most important, and then determine what else can be effectively grouped round this as a centre. For example, in describing the trade and manufactures of a town it is advisable to ascertain the business-centre or the controlling business, and subordinate the rest to this. In describing the natural beauties of a scene, one should seize upon the prominent feature, whether river, or lake, or hill. In narrating, one should seize upon one incident as the cardinal incident, and treat the other incidents as prelude or as sequel.

In Exposition, which is the explanation of a phenomenon or the discussion of a law or general relation, the writer is always to consider the law of cause and effect and the possibility of illustrating by means of resemblances and differences. Put in simpler language, the process may be defined as saying what a thing is, what it is not; what it is like, what it is unlike; what has produced it, what in turn is produced by it. For example, let us suppose the subject to be The Habit of Neatness. What other habits resemble it most closely? What habits are in most evident contrast with it? How is the habit formed and maintained? What are the unpleasant consequences of want of neatness?

Further, every subject admits of more than one mode of treatment; the writer has his choice. For example, Washington at Valley Forge may be treated as a mere description of the hardships endured by the Americans; there may be also a contrast with the comfort of the British in their winter quarters. Again, the causes may be mentioned which forced Washington into this trying position. Going a step farther, the writer may introduce the change brought about by the