laries of sex, direct and indirect, and they are to be found throughout the body, are primarily connected with the functioning of these interstitial cells. Where they do not operate with normal strength or have been removed, the two sexes tend to approximate each other in physical and mental traits. The interstitial cells also appear to be one of the chief factors in maintaining the youth and vigor of the whole body: 15 The puberty gland seems to be mainly responsible both for sexual vigor and sex aggressiveness, and for the youthfulness and activation of all the other glandular systems of the body. At any rate, there is a growing tendency on the part of investigators (possibly in the absence of critical proof) to believe that man is as old as his glands. And since the remaining glands apparently cannot stay youthful in the absence of a sufficient output from the puberty glands, it is only natural to connect senescence or old age with a decline in the output from this gland. As a consequence efforts have been made in recent years to find the fountain of youth in these glands, but the various attempts at rejuvenation cannot to date be called very successful, although a promising field for further study is here indicated. The above paragraphs briefly summarize the main features of our present knowledge about the glands of internal secretion, in so far as it seems capable of helping us to understand the whole man in action. Future work in this field will no doubt reveal much of importance for the better understanding of human personality. (6) Abnormal psychology as an index to normal personality. Students of the normal individual have made far too little use of the data furnished by the investigation of mental aberrations and deficiencies, both because such materials must have seemed irrelevant to an acquaintance with the highly rational individual of former psychological systems, and because abnormal psychology has as yet hardly emerged from the classificatory and descriptive stages. Contrary to common opinion, the abnormal mind is never a complete jumble. When a patient "says anything that comes into his head," his speech is not random and never fails to disclose trends and continuities not fundamentally unlike those of normal people. Sometimes the patient's processes are even more ordered and logical (inside their premises) than those of his fellows. But certain attributes and tendencies of human nature appear in greater relief when they are studied as they occur in abnormals, and the significance of many of our normal powers for the first time becomes clear when we view the disorganizations that follow their degeneration or disappearance. There is of course a pathological and morbid interest in pathology that is not entirely healthy, but many interesting things about human nature are suggested by a study of defective individuals. The range of mental defects and aberrations is of course extremely great. Any portion of any reflex arc, or any group of reflex arcs, can become disordered as a result of disease, degeneration, poisonous substances, shock, or other interferences with normal operation; and in addition there occur the so-called functional disorders, which correspond to no known anatomical distribution of nerves. Instead of attempting to cover this whole field in detail, in the paragraphs that follow free use has been made of a suggestive and valuable organization of a large part of the data recently published by Dr. A. J. Rosanoff.16 Dr. Rosanoff divides abnormals into four main groups, each showing tendencies and traits which are also to be found, often in fairly exaggerated form, in normal human beings. These abnormals, in other words, are not sharply to be distinguished from regularly endowed human beings, all grades of excess and deficiency of the qualities under consideration at some time making their appearance. The distinction between the two groups is not cleancut, since pathological cases do not always require supervision, whereas normals sometimes do, but in general most normals are qualitatively to be distinguished by a higher degree of "inhibition, emotional control, a superior durability of mind, rational balance, and nervous stability." The abnormal types of personality of special significance to an understanding of normal human beings that Dr. Rosanoff discusses are as follows: (a) Antisocial—the constitutional basis of hysteria, which involves a narrowing of the conscious life due to the dissociation of a group of reflex arcs from the main stream of reflex activity. The patient may be able to feel no sensations from his hand or his arm, or his visual field may be extremely contracted, etc. These dissociated elements retreat, as it were, from contact with the world. Rosanoff states that this group betrays a "predominance of illicit selfish motivations" and a "more or less pronounced lack of compunction," and that such persons form the group of chronic malingerers, pathological liars, and inveterate swindlers. (b) Cyclothymic-the constitutional basis of manic-depressive cases, which are characterized by fits of excitement or melancholy, or both. Rosanoff distinguishes four classes-manic, depressive, irascible, and emotionally unstable. Many normal individuals can testify to more or less extended periods of elation or of retarded activity, the reasons for which resist all of their efforts at explanation. (c) Autistic-the constitutional basis of dementia praecox. These persons show a narrowing of external interests and con tacts, progressive apathy for the things of this world, and preoccupation with internal ruminations (cf. introversion). Delusions are common, and the condition is usually progressive. (d) Epileptic-given over to strong unreasoning likes and dislikes, impulsiveness, extreme variability of feelings, craving for self-expression, etc. The normal individual will frequently show pronounced traces of any or all of these abnormalities, and they are often noted in children who later outgrow them. The reader should have no great difficulty in identifying persons from among the circle of his acquaintances who exemplify fairly unusual degrees of excess or deficiency under each of the four heads given above. Any degree of intellectual capacity may coexist with any of the above temperamental states, but the relative frequency of feeble-mindedness increases as one passes from normals to manic-depressives to dementia-praecox cases to epileptics. It must be repeated that highly abnormal persons are not always social liabilities. The sensitiveness and power of expression of highly cyclothymic personalities (as Poe and Nietzsche) have given us great literary masterpieces, and many pioneering souls have been of the same type. The great philosophers have often been surprisingly autistic (as Kant, Spinoza, Archimedes), and much literary work has had an epileptic origin (as Flaubert, Dostoievsky). Nor have the great of this world been entirely free from antisocial tendencies. The whole man in action. In this chapter an effort has been made to view the whole man from enough different points of view to gain a reasonable idea of the great complexity of a developed life. The body and its processes is far from being a simple affair, but the man in action and in thinking adds to the complexity, for he never quite succeeds in defining or distinguishing the body, the me, the mine, and the not-me. We flow out into many of the things that surround us, until we incorporate into our selves our clothes, our family, our home, the climate and scenery of the place where we have long lived, while at the same time we reject and disown many of the processes that indubitably do go on within the organism. Our personalities can even be shown to contain elements derived from other minds than our own, as when a man is made by his friends, who insist so strongly that he is something that he is forced to become that thing in order to save his self-respect. Finally, the sphere of the self is almost constantly changing. We lay claim to things at one moment, and ignore them during the next, and in addition to these short-term fluctuations there can often be plotted long-time secular trends or tendencies in a man's personality. In fact a man's life usually exhibits a considerable number of partly unified movements in varying directions, centering around a few somewhat more fixed points. Essentially the proper idea can be gained by a study of a series of photographs of the same individual taken at different times under varying circumstances. It is perhaps not difficult to see that they are all of the same person, and yet the differences are also very apparent and often extremely interesting. They reveal the influence of the various life-periods, of the growth and decline of fashions and fads, of the slow development of mannerisms and tastes, and of the various social affiliations that have been formed, either to decay or to increase in strength with the passage of time. A man's self is formed in all these and in many other similar ways. REFERENCES 1 For an important case see Morton Prince, The Dissociation of a Personality, A biographical study in abnormal psychology (2 ed., Longmans, Green, 1913). 2 G. Udny Yule, in Brit. Journ. of Psych., Vol. 12 (1921-1922), 106. 3 Valuable discussions of various phases of personality are to be found in F. H. Allport, Social Psychology (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1924), 99-125, and in Į. B. Watson, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist (2 ed., Phila., Lippincott, 1924), 412-440. 4 Alfred Adler, Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Psychical Compensation (N. Y., Nervous and Mental Disease Pub. Co., 1917). 5 Alfred Binet, L'intelligence des imbéciles, L'Année Psych., 1909, 128 f. 6 L. L. Thurstone, The Nature of Intelligence (London, Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1924), XV. 7 See Carl Jung, Psychological Types, or The psychology of individuation, trans. by H. G. Baynes (London, Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1923). Cf. also William James on the tender-minded and the tough-minded, in his Pragmatism (N. Y., Longmans, Green, 1907), Lecture 1. 8 See the summary and bibliography in Carl Kelsey, The Physical Basis of Society (N. Y., Appleton, 1916), 233-275. 9 Joseph Wood Krutch, Edgar Allan Poe, A study in genius (N. Y., Knopf, 1926). 10 See, e.g., Robert H. Lowie, Primitive Religion (N. Y., Boni and Liveright, 1924), esp. Chapter 11; Paul Radin, The Autobiography of a Winnebago Indian (Berkeley, Univ. of Calif. Press, 1920); and the attractive stories and reconstructions of the Indian scene in Elsie Clews Parsons (ed.), American Indian Life (N. Y., Huebsch, 1922). 11 This has been shown by Rhys Carpenter, The Ethics of Euripides (N. Y., Columbia Univ. Press, 1916). Aristotle himself conceived it to be the duty of ethics essentially to establish the accepted views regarding conduct (cf. Ethics, Book 7, Chapter 1). For other data on peculiarities in Greek conceptions, see the writings of F. M. Cornford, esp. From Religion to Philosophy, A study in the origins of western speculation (London, Arnold, 1912). 12 For a sympathetic yet objective description of one contemporary group by a member of another, see Robert Dell, My Second Country (France) (London, Lane, 1920). 13 Bernard Bosanquet, The Civilization of Christendom, and other studies (London, Sonnenschein, 1893), 185-186. 14 The interested reader may consult Benjamin Harrow, Glands in Health and Disease (N. Y., Dutton, 1922); L. Berman, The Glands Regulating Personality (N. Y., Macmillan, 1921)-to be used with caution; J. B. Watson, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist (2 ed., Phila., Lippincott), 190-213; or E. SharpeySchafer, The Endocrine Organs, An introduction to the study of internal secretion (2 ed., Part I, London, Longmans, Green, 1924). 15 Watson, 209. 16 A. J. Rosanoff, A theory of personality, Psych. Bull., Vol. 17 (1920), 281–299. Part III HUMAN NATURE AND SOCIAL COMPLEXES CHAPTER 9 ROUTINES Just as certain features of contemporary life can best be grasped through a study of the processes of individual development, so others yield more easily when they are approached through a consideration of one or another of the great social complexes that enter so deeply into human living. Here again the approach can be broadly synthetic, as it will be in this part, where the discussion will center in order about routines, tools, language, values, common-sense, and innovation, or it can be analytic, as in the part that follows, where such topics as the family, economic institutions, art, science, and religion will be considered. The division of the discussion into parts in which the direction of approach shifts somewhat is dictated by convenience, and is more closely connected with the form of the available data than with intrinsic differences in subject-matter. The round of life activities. Every group on inspection will be found to be engaged in running through a fairly regular cycle of life activities in which essentially the same situations are faced again and again after varying periods of time. Many features of this rhythm of reactions are based upon purely physical recurrences, for we live in a world in which the days, months, seasons, years, follow each other with high regularity, bringing before us, not the same things over and over again, it is true, but things very similar to those that the same stage of the cycle brought in times past. Likewise, the plants and animals upon which man depends for his food have |