Gen Liby Rot Reams Replace gut Floyd Owen 1-27-55 trons. Corrid 5-1-36 PREFACE. THE "Annual Cyclopædia" for 1879 has grown into a larger volume than usual from the multitudinous events of a year unusually prolific in legislative action and political changes, and teeming with vitality in the various fields of scientific progress and mechanical development, religious activity, industrial advancement, and commercial transition, which come within the scope of a work which aims to be a complete record of the current history of the United States and of the world, and a register of every fact or occurrence which forms an influential factor in modern civilization. The articles on the States are lengthened beyond their usual compass by exceptionally important legislation transacted and pending upon the regulation of railroad, insurance, and other corporations; upon temperance, convict-labor, tramps, Chinese immigration, and the different elements of the labor question; upon the regulation of the ballot and the question of the Federal control of elections; upon the question of paying or not paying State and municipal debts, and other subjects of moment. The Legislatures of the individual States are the arenas in which most of the socio-political questions, which in other countries make the great national issues, are fought out; and as the "Annual Cyclopædia is the only full and comprehensive chronicle of this most momentous portion of the country's history, it must not allow any important acts of legislation, nor any decision of the courts concerning them, or subjects of political agitation, to pass unrecorded. Full and interesting data are given this year upon the industrial and agricultural condition of many of the States, as well as the usual reports of public affairs, statistical information, and record of party action. In CALIFORNIA a synopsis of the new Constitution is found. In MAINE and in PUBLIC DOCUMENTS the documents relating to the election difficulty are given at length. In TENNESSEE, ALABAMA, and VIRGINIA, the debt questions are unfolded; in MINNESOTA and FLORIDA, the question of railroad land-grants; and in other States, whatever subjects are uppermost in the public mind. In separate articles the EXODUS OF THE COLORED PEOPLE and the YELLOW FEVER are thoroughly discussed. In CONGRESS the debates on the anti-Chinese and election investigation bills, and the conflicts over the army and judicial appropriation bills in their successive phases, are very fully reported, with the entire texts of the President's vetoes. The NATIONAL BOARD OF HEALTH is explained in a timely article. The high value and authority of the exhaustive monographs on the MARINE HOSPITAL SERVICE, the SIGNAL SERVICE, the RESUMPTION OF SPECIE PAYMENTS, and REFUNDING THE PUBLIC DEBT will be appreciated by every reader. Every word in these articles carries the weight of the authority of men who are best qualified and best entitled to speak upon these important institutions and achievements of the national Government-who themselves were magna pars in their development. The historical account of the marine hospitals is from the pen of Surgeon-General Dr. John B. Hamilton, the head of the service. The clear and full exposition of the workings of the Meteorological Division of the Signal Service was prepared under the supervision of General Albert J. Myer, Chief Signal Officer. The succinct but complete expositions of the great fiscal achievements of refunding and resumption have for their author J. K. Upton, the present Assistant Secretary of the Treasury. The "Cyclopædia" is as full as ever of religious information. In EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE the acts of that association are recounted; in BRAHMO SOMAJ the reform movement among the Brahmans is explained; and a review of each Church is given under the name of the denomination. The political history and statistical survey of the different nations of the earth are as complete as in former years. The Ferry laws in France, the tariff reform in Germany, and the leading questions and legislative results in other countries are amply discussed. The Nihilistic troubles are recounted and explained in RUSSIA and NIHILISM. The origin and events of the war in Zoolooland are described in CAPE COLONY, and the rise and growth of the Zooloo nation in ZooLoos; the history of the South American war is narrated in BOLIVIA and PERU; of the Afghan war, in AFGHANISTAN and INDIA; of the Russian expedition into Turkistan, in RUSSIA; of the Burmese horrors, in BURMAH. IN EGYPT the developments of the debt question and the deposition of the Khedive are related. The visitation of the plague in Russia is given in PLAGUE, and a description of the Isthmus Canal scheme and of the various plans and routes in INTEROCEANIC CANAL. The newly erected autonomous states in Turkey are described in BULGARIA and EASTERN ROUMELIA, and sketches of their rulers under their names. This volume is behind none of its predecessors in the department of biography. The articles on COMMERCE and the commercial statistics presented under the several countries afford a survey of the trade of all nations, and a mass of information upon commerce and industry which can hardly be found elsewhere. Besides the customary comprehensive scientific articles, there are special ores on the more prominent subjects of recent research and discovery. The article on GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION is more detailed than usual; the portion relating to Arctic discovery is a valuable contribution from the pen of Captain Howgate. With the unusually profuse illustrations of this volume it is hoped that nowhere will be felt the want of a map, a diagram, or a drawing which would make the text clearer. There are steel portraits of President Grévy of the French Republic, Speaker Randall, and Secretary Sherman. A glance through the index will show that the present volume is not merely a larger, but that it is a fuller book than usual. As indicated above, uncommon pains have been taken to render the "Annual Cyclopædia," as far as possible, rounder and more cyclopædic in character. THE ANNUAL CYCLOPÆDIA. ABD-EL-KADER (properly SIDI EL-HADJI ABD EL-KADER ULED MAHIDDIN), a distinguished Arab chief, and one of the most prominent representatives of Mohammedanism in the nineteenth century; born near Mascara in Algeria about 1807, died in Damascus in November, 1879. By a pilgrimage to Mecca, which he made together with his father, who was a marabout (Arab seer), as well as by his studies at the University of Fez, he gained a reputation for piety and the title el-Hadji, the pilgrim. The conquest of Algeria by the French, however, made of the future priest a warrior. Upon the recommendation of his father the people elected him Ameer of Mascara, and he soon, by his perseverance, indomitable courage, and patriotism, gained the love and confidence of the Kabyles to a high degree. In 1832 and 1833 he was engaged in a war with France, and, although repeatedly defeated, finally compelled the French to conclude the treaty of February 26, 1834, by which his sovereignty was acknowledged, and he was permitted to buy arms in France. He next subjugated the native tribes, extending his authority over the entire provinces of Titeri and Oran. In the following year he again waged war against the French, defeating General Trézel on the Makta, June 28, 1835, and General d'Arlanges on the Tafua, April 25, 1836; and he continued his guerrilla struggle with such success that the French, who were then contemplating the capture of Constantine, in order to gain time for this undertaking, made another treaty with him on May 30, 1837, in which they recognized his authority under the nominal sovereignty of France, and by which he was intrusted with the administration of the provinces of Oran, Titeri, and Algeria, with the exception of the capitals and the Metidja of Algiers. In 1839 he renewed the war against France; but this time the French were more successful, so that in 1842 he was compelled to seek refuge in Morocco. Abd-er-Raham, the Sultan of Morocco, received him; but, beVOL. XIX.-1 A A fore the Sultan had made up his mind what to do, he had involved Morocco in a war with France, which was short and decisive. In the battle of Isly, August 14, 1844, the Moors were completely defeated, and, fearing Abd-el-Kader's influence in Morocco, the Sultan concluded peace with France, and Abd-el-Kader was again a fugitive. Stirring up revolt in Morocco itself, he defeated the troops of the Sultan in several battles. The power against him was too strong, however, and on December 21, 1847, he was forced to enter French territory, and on the following day surrendered to General Lamoricière. The General promised to send him to Egypt or to Syria, and the Duke d'Aumale confirmed this promise. This pledge was broken by the Government of Louis Philippe, and he was retained in captivity for many years. President Louis Napoleon, however, released him in 1852, after he had sworn on the Koran not to oppose the French rule in Africa. He then took up his abode in Brussa, and afterward in Damascus, where he exerted himself strongly in favor of the Christians at the time of the Syrian massacres of 1860, for which he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honor. Louis Napoleon allowed him a pension of 100,000 francs, which was reduced in 1879. He visited the Paris Exposition and England in 1867, and in 1870 offered his services to France against Germany. In 1871 Abd-el-Kader submitted to the Government of Thiers some suggestions relative to reforms in the administration of Algeria. Since that time but little has been heard of him. He was known to live a retired life in Damascus, devoting his time to religious duties, the education of his children, and literary pursuits. Though one of the boldest, bravest, and most intrepid defenders of decaying Mohammedanism against the victorious advance of Christian nations, Abd-el-Kader was by no means an obstinate opponent of modern civilization, but showed an eagerness to learn from his victors. Ever since 1852 he was on the best terms with France; he became an advocate of the principle of religious toleration, and joined the order of Freemasonry. He did not renounce polygamy, but in his retirement at Damascus had three wives. Most of his numerous children died before their father, and one of his daughters became a Christian. A religio-philosophical work, which he wrote in Arabic in his retirement, was well received, and translated by Dugat into French under the title "Rappel à l'Intelligent, Avis à l'Indifférent" (Paris, 1858). Special works on Abd-el-Kader have been published by Laménaire, "Vie, Aventures, Combats et Prise d'Abd-el-Kader" (Paris, 1848), and Bellemare, "Abd-el-Kader Sa Vie Politique et Militaire" (Paris, 1863). ABYSSINIA,* a country of Eastern Africa, the boundaries of which continue to be unsettled. The area of Abyssinia proper, which was formerly said to comprise the three important states of Tigré, Amhara, and Shoa, is estimated by Behm and Wagner ("Bevölkerung der Erde," vol. v.) at about 158,000 square miles; the population is believed to be from 8,000,000 to 5,000,000. The larger portion of this country is governed by King John (formerly known as Prince Kassai), while Shoa is under the government of King Menelek. The son of the late King Theodore, Prince Almayoo, who after the death of his father was sent to England to receive there a careful education, died at Leeds on November 24, 1879. As the King of Abyssinia lays claim to large territories which have of late been annexed to Egypt, especially the port of Massowa, the two countries have been for years on unfriendly terms. In 1879 the Government of Egypt sent Gordon Pasha on a special mission to King John to settle the pending difficulties peaceably. The King refused to accept the propositions made by Gordon Pasha, and threatened to invade Egypt. (See EGYPT.) An Egyptian functionary, Zobir Pasha, who was ruler of Darfoor before the annexation of this country to Egypt, gave in September to an American writer the following account of the situation of affairs in Abyssinia: King John has now reduced to obedience his two vassal kings, Menelek and Wold-Mikail. The King knows well that by order of the Sultan at Constantinople the Egyptian army is reduced to 18,000 men. The King knows also that Gordon Pasha has left Cairo with papers from England and France forbidding Abyssinia to make war with Egypt. But will not England and France also prevent Egypt from going to war with Abyssinia? Munzinger Pasha stole for Egypt the country of the Bogos. King John then took back by force a part of this territory. Ismail Pasha then sent three expeditions against Abyssinia. The first, commanded by Munzinger Pasha and consisting of 2,000 men, was annihilated by King John, and Munzinger himself killed. The second, consisting of 1,800 men, shared a like fate, and its commander, Colonel Arendrup, was killed, together with Count Zichy and Arakel Bey, the son-in-law of Nubar Pasha. See" Annual Cyclopædia" of 1877, art. ABYSSINIA. On the former history of King John, see "Annual Cyclopædia" of 1878 and 1875. The third expedition, consisting of over 20,000 men, magnificently equipped and provided with a large European and American staff, was also defeated and driven from the land. Soon after the defeat of this third Egyptian army, Menelek, King of the Shoa country, broke out into revolt in the south, and was aided by King Wold-Mikail in the north. King John hastened to put down these formidable revolts, and in the country. But now Menelek and Wold-Mikail are mean time the Egyptians stole back again the Bogos friends with King John, and have taken wives from his family; and, mark well my words, King John will get back the Bogos country (a fertile district on the north and northwest frontiers of Abyssinia) by fair means or by foul, or he will perish in the attempt. Who will prevent him? Egypt can not, and King John does not believe that England and France will go to war with him to prevent his taking back from Egypt what rightly belongs to him. King Menelck of Shoa, the southern part of Abyssinia, in August informed the British Anti-Slavery Society that he had abolished the slave-trade throughout his dominions. In December the relations between Menelek and the King of Abyssinia were reported to be critical, because Menelek has failed to pay his annual tribute. ADULTERATION. The Governments of Germany, Belgium, and other European countries have in recent years taken active steps to suppress adulteration and the use of deleterious substances, more particularly in foods or in articles where a direct noxious effect upon the public health results. In Great Britain the health authorities are empowered to suppress the sale of articles of food containing injurious ingredients. In the different American States special acts have been passed relative to debased or adulterated food articles. In the State of New York dealers in artificial butter are compelled to label it as such, and strict measures have been taken to put a stop to the adulteration or reduction of milk. No general laws have been enacted, however, to suppress the debasement or falsification of commercial commodities, or even of food products, a kind of fraud to which the larger portion of the mercantile community are themselves unwilling parties. This subject has been called to the attention of the public frequently of late by chemists, microscopists, and physicians; but the deadly effects of some of the materials from which articles of daily use are manufactured, and the extent to which the adulteration of foods, beverages, and medicines is carried on, according to the testimony of expert analysts, is hardly conceived of by the general public. Dr. Kedzie, President of the State Board of Health of Michigan, has officially warned the people of that State of two very dangerous sources of disease and death in the reckless employment of poisonous materials in manufactures-arsenic to color wallin the sheet-tin of which cheap cooking vessels papers and to dye clothing materials, and lead are made. In the report of the Canadian Commissioners of Inland Revenue for 1877 it is stated that out of 180 specimens of groceries 93 were found by analysis to be adulterated. |