praises; that she had ventured sometimes to feign a contrariety of sentiments, in order to give him the pleasure of refuting her; and that she also proposed, by this innocent artifice, to engage him on topics, whence she had reaped both amusement and instruction.' And is it so, sweetheart?' replied the king; then we are perfect friends again.' He embraced her with great affection, and sent her away with assurances of his protection and kindness. Her enemies, who knew nothing of this sudden change, prepared next day to convey her to the Tower, pursuant to the king's warrant; and Henry and Catherine were conversing amicably together in the garden, when the chancellor appeared, with 40 of the pursuivants. The king spoke to him at some distance from her, and seemed to expostulate with him in the severest manner; Catherine even overheard the terms knave, fool, and beast, which he very liberally bestowed upon that magistrate, and then ordered him to depart his presence. When she afterwards interposed to mitigate his anger, he said to her, Poor soul! you know not how little entitled that man is to your good offices!' Thenceforth the queen, having narrowly escaped so great a danger, was careful not to offend Henry's humour by any contradiction; and Gardiner could never afterwards recover his favour and good opinion. Henry, at his death, 1547, left Catherine a legacy of 4000l. besides her jointure, for her great love, obedience, chasteness of life, and wisdom;' and she afterwards married the lord admiral, Sir Thomas Seymour, uncle to Edward VI. But this connexion proved unhappy, and involved her in troubles and difficulties; and she died in child-bed, not without suspicion of poison, 1548.

TRIAL OF LAMBERT, 1538.-Though king Henry had relinquished tenet after tenet of that theological system in which he had been educated, he was equally positive and dogmatical concerning the few articles which remained to him; and as each change

occurred in his own creed, he thought himself entitled to regulate thereby the faith of the whole nation. The point on which, throughout the whole contest, he chiefly rested his orthodoxy, was the real presence; all departure from this principle he held to be heretical and detestable; and though transubstantiation, which it involved, has been regarded as a chief protestant ground for separating from the Church in unity, Henry held it as the most essential article of the faith. There was one Lambert, a schoolmaster in London, who persisted, notwithstanding the king's decrees on the subject, to oppose the tenet; and being accused to Cranmer and Latimer, those prelates, who then held the doctrine of the corporal presence, endeavoured to make him recant his heresy. Lambert, however, having appealed from them to the king, Henry, delighted at having a public opportunity of displaying his casuistry before his own bishops, cited the recusant to Westminster Hall; where, sitting on the throne, he ordered the bishop of Chichester to begin the conference. When that prelate had declared that the king, notwithstanding any slight alterations he had made in the rites of the Church, was yet determined to maintain the purity of the Catholic faith, and to punish, with the utmost severity, all departure from it, Henry, instead of listening to the man's defence, pressed him with arguments drawn from Scripture and the schoolmen ; Cranmer seconded his proofs by some new topics; Gardiner entered the lists as a support to Cranmer; Tonstal took up the argument after Gardiner; Stokesley brought fresh aid to Tonstal; six bishops more appeared successively in the field after Stokesley; and the disputation, if it deserves the name, was prolonged for five hours, till Lambert, fatigued, confounded, brow-beaten, and abashed, was at last reduced to silence. The king then, returning to the charge, asked him whether he was convinced? and he proposed, as a concluding argu

ment, this interesting question, 'Whether he was resolved to live or die?' Lambert replying that he cast himself wholly on the king's clemency, Henry told him that he would not be the protector of heretics; and therefore, if that was his final answer, he must expect to be committed to the flames. Cromwell, as vicegerent, read the sentence against him. Lambert was by no means daunted by the terrors of the punishment which awaited him. His executioners took care to make the sufferings of a man who had personally opposed the king, as cruel as possible; he was burned at a slow fire; his legs and thighs were consumed to the stumps; and when there appeared no end of his torments, some of the guards, more merciful than the rest, lifted him on their halberds, and threw him into the flames, where he was consumed. While they were employed in this friendly office, he cried aloud several times, None but Christ! None but Christ!' and those words were in his mouth when he expired.

TRIAL OF ANNE ASKEW. This victim of the cruel spirit of persecution which pervaded all parties at the opening of the Reformation, was the daughter of Sir William Askew of Kelsey. Having become a convert to protestant notions respecting the eucharist, her husband, Mr. Kyme, turned her out of doors; on which, coming from Lincolnshire to London, she sued privately to queen Catherine Parr for her interest towards a divorce. By her husband's direction, however, she was pursued, and accused to the lord mayor and others of holding dangerous opinions, and in the end committed to the Tower. The encouragement she had received from Catherine being the chief ground of Henry's severe conduct to the queen, it was fortunate that the torture which Anne was now made to undergo, could not induce her to inculpate that princess; and Wriothesley, the chancellor, has devoted his name to eternal execration by applying his own hands to the rack, when

the lieutenant of the Tower refused to strain it with more violence. By this atrocious act of unmanly rage, all the limbs of the innocent victim were dislocated; yet she maintained her heroic fidelity, and when recovered from her swoon, sat for two hours calmly reasoning with her persecutors. Pardon was afterwards offered if she would recant; but she steadily rejected every offer of the kind, and was in consequence condemned to the stake, which punishment she endured with extraordinary courage and constancy, July 16, 1646.

LAND LETTING.-Lands were let in England (pasture and arable) at Is. per acre commonly, after the dissolution of the monasteries, 1535. The average highest price of land, in any county of England, by a recent estimation (1839), is shown to be in Middlesex 38s. 8d. per acre; then Leicestershire 27s. 2d.; and the average lowest, Cumberland 9s. 74d.; then Hants and Sussex, 11s. 5d. But in assessing taxes on the land, these prices are wholly disregarded; since in the survey of William IV., land in Surrey, averaged at 15s. 2 d., is rated commonly at 41. per acre. The landed proprietors of England and Wales in 1839 (in which latter country the average price is 6s. 8d. throughout) amounted to 200,000, and the total rental of land to 30 millions, exclusive of house-rent in large cities and towns, such as London and Liverpool. The average income, however, of landed proprietors is but 150l. per year. The fundholders of the whole kingdom, in the Bank of England books, amount to 280,000.

SUPPRESSION OF THE MONASTERIES. This wholesale spoliation and robbery of Henry VIII. began 1535, and was in the spirit of that love of lucre which had prompted his parent to commute every crime for money. Swayed by the same 'auri sacra fames,' he hastened Wolsey's fall, to seize his gold cupboard of plate, and his costly furniture at Whitehall; and whether the sanctified vessels of the temple, or the hoards of drunken

lords and pampered cits,' all were alike his prey. By an act passed 1535, all monasteries, priories, and other religious houses of monks, canons, and nuns, of whatever habit, rule, or order, not having lands, rents, or other hereditaments above the value of 2001. per annum, and all their manors and lands, were given to the king and his heirs for ever. This act and those which followed it did not affect ecclesiastical bodies or persons, simply as such; that is, they did not affect the secular clergy, such as archbishops, bishops, deans and chapters, prebendaries, archdeacons, parsons, and vicars; but only the regular clergy, to whose houses within the realm they wholly put an end. The regular clergy, or Regulars, were those who, having vowed obedience, chastity, and poverty, had entered some house of religion, and there professed; having become thus dead in a civil sense,-dead to the world. Indeed such civil death was the ground of the legal phrase, a natural life,' in contradistinction to a civil life; it being customary for all, before becoming regulars, to make their wills, being dead in the law by their entrance into religion,' as it was termed; and their sons or nearest of kin thereupon inherited their worldly goods. A lease being often made to a man for the life of another person, and that other person becoming a monk, and thereby causing the lease to determine, it became necessary to make such a lease for the natural life of any person, on the continuance of whose life the lease was to depend. By the act of 1535, 10,000 English friars and nuns were driven from their places of seclusion, and left, in a majority of instances, without the means of support; a most cruel, and tyrannical proceeding-since it was on the public faith they relied for the continuance of the support they sought, when they relinquished their worldly goods on closing their civil lives.

THE MARRIAGE ACT.-The first important act upon this all-important

subject passed 1540 (32 Henry VIII.), in the reign of a sovereign who seems to have made light enough of all marriage enactments. The English law, from the moment of throwing off the papal yoke, considered marriage no longer as a sacrament, but simply as a civil contract; the holiness of the matrimonial state being left entirely to the ecclesiastical law, to which it still pertains to punish unscriptural marriages. There is a well-known table, beginning with the memorable injunction, that a man may not marry his grandmother,' which contains all the prohibited degrees; but this, leaving out first cousins, and not second cousins, has given rise to a notion that first cousins may marry, while second cousins, who are a further remove, may not. The fact is that the document in question confounds the civil and the canon law together; by the former, both first and second cousins are allowed to marry; but by the latter they are both prohibited. When therefore a marriage between cousins takes place, it is capable of being annulled by canon law; but the civil law, which the act of Henry originated, being more regarded, such contracts are rarely questioned. How far the fair women of England may have a chance of entering into the estate of matrimony, which we think, on every account, ought to be regarded more as a religious tie than a civil engagement, the following table, drawn up with extreme care, after the experience of a series of years, is intended to show. If we take 100 to represent the whole of the lady's chances of marriage betwen the ages of 15 and 70, the proportional chances in each period of five years will be as follows: 15 and under 20, 14}; 20— 25, 52; 25-30, 18; 30—35, 6}; 35-40, 33; 40—45, 23; 45—50, 1§; 50-55, ; 55–60, † ; 60—70 onetenth. From this it appears, therefore, first, that one-seventh of all the females who marry in England are married between 15 and 20; that is, one-seventh part of a woman's chances

of marriage lies between those years. Secondly, that fully one-half of all the women who marry are married between 20 and 25; or one-half of a woman's chances are comprised within those five years. Thirdly, that between 15 and 25, precisely two-thirds of a woman's chances are exhausted, and only one-third remains for the rest of her life till 70.

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT BEGAN 1545, and lasted 18 years. It was opened by Paul III., and closed by Pius IV. 1563; and its object was to correct, illustrate, and fix with precision and perspicuity, the doctrine of the Church, to restore the vigour of its discipline, and to reform the lives of its ministers. Its decrees, together with the creed of Pius IV. (which is only a summary of those decrees), form the present rule of faith of the Roman church. From the latter circumstance, the Roman Catholics are often called Tridentines, as followers of the Trent decrees. Trent, the ancient Tridentum, is in the Austrian dominion of Lombardy.

FOUNDATION OF THE JESUITS.Ignatius (Inigo) Loyola, a Biscayan of noble birth, entered the army of Charles V., and was wounded at Pampeluna, during a siege of that place by the French and Navarrese. His long consequent confinement induced him to reflect upon the thoughtlessness and errors of his early life; and he resolved, if he recovered, to devote the remainder of his days to piety and religious labour. He at length conceived the plan of establishing an order, which should be devoted to the four following objects: the education of youth; preaching, and otherwise instructing grown-up people; defending the Catholic faith against heretics and unbelievers; and propagating Christianity among the heathen. Having begun to attract attention by inveighing against the loose morality of the times, he fell under the suspicions of the Inquisition, and was imprisoned, but afterwards released. He then undertook

several pilgrimages, and at last repaired to Paris, where he took holy orders. It was at Paris, in 1534, that six of his friends entered into a solemn compact to promote his object; and three more companions being added, the ten repaired to Rome, 1537, and laid the project before pope Paul III. Loyola, having been a soldier, had based his rules upon the principle of a strict subordination, carried through several gradations, terminating with the 'præpositus generalis,' who was to have absolute sway for life over the whole society, and from whose decisions there was to be no appeal. This general was to be subject to the pope only. Most of the old monastic orders had a considerable share of democracy in their institutions: they assembled in chapters, and elected their local superiors; and those superiors were mostly changed every three years. But Loyola's projected order was strictly monarchical, and therefore adapted to be a more effective support of the Roman see, at a time when support was most wanted, in consequence of the spread of the Wicliffite and Lutheran tenets. Besides this, the wealthier of the monastic orders, such as the Benedictines, employed their leisure in scientific and speculative studies, living retired, and knowing little of political affairs; while the mendicants, or friars, had degenerated from their first zeal, had become obnoxious by the sale of indulgences, and were despised for their ignorance, corruption, and vulgarity. The prelates of the court of Rome, such as Bembo, and Leo X. himself, spoke with open scorn of the latter, and called them hypocrites. Paul, approving the plan, issued a bull, 1540, for the establishment of the new order by the title of The Society of Jesus; and it was ordained that the members (since called Jesuits) should wear no monkish garb, but dress in black like the secular clergy, and that they should not be obliged to keep canonical hours in the choir like other monks,

in order that they might have more leisure for study or business. A hairshirt was to be worn next the skin by every member; but this and other austerities were to be considered under the regulation of the founder. Loyola died 1556, at which period his followers had augmented to 10,000; and under his successor, the general Lainez, a man of extraordinary ability and energy, their increase was surprisingly great.

THE HUGUENOTS are said by some to have been first so called in France, 1540. They were the Calvinist protestants of that country, and received their name from the German, eignot, confederate, originally applied to such Genevese as defended their rights against Charles, duke of Savoy. (See Vol. I. page 452.)

OVERTHROW OF THE MAMLUK POWER.- Selim I., having entered Egypt with a large force, 1517, defeated and killed Tomaun Bey, the Mamluk Borgite Soldan, or Schaichel-belled, and taking himself that title, allowed the inferior Mamluk beys to act as his tributary governors of provinces. Motawakel, a descendant of the Abassides of Bagdad, was nominal khalif of Egypt at the moment of Selim's invasion; and him the sultan carried away to Constantinople, though after a while he suffered him to return to Cairo, where he died, 1538. With Motawakel expired (strictly speaking) the Saracen name. Thus the Mamluk power, founded 1250, and called Borgite, 1382, was in 1517 broken down by the Turks to a tributary form; and Egypt so continued to be ruled by Mamluks, in subjection to the Ottoman Porte, till the horrible massacre of the Beys by Mehemet Ali, 1811. Under the Borgite Mamluks had sprung up in Egypt a mendicant tribe of Moslims, pretending to the rank of prophets; and these, under the names of Santons, Fakirs, Calenders, Derwishes, &c., at length overspread Arabia, Persia, and Turkey. Though all professing poverty, and the com

plete sacrifice of temporal interests, in order the more exclusively to devote themselves to spiritual matters, their influence in some parts of the East extended to the most important affairs of government; and Santons were frequently known to fill the chief offices in the state. When acting simply as prophets, they, to this day, live in tents or retired grottos, like hermits; and the ignorant Moslims steal away to consult them on all occasions of difficulty, paying them money for their advice. The Osmanlees consider the founder of the tribe to have been one Abdal, called Santone Kalenderi, who, in the time of Mohammed, always mentioned the name of God with the sound of his pipe, and with that music recreated himself day and night, not after a cheerful and merry humour, but with tears and sighs. He was,' say they, a deep philosopher, and indued with those supernatural virtues which enable men to work miracles.'

ORIGIN OF THE BUCCANEERS, 1526. After the Spaniards had got possession of the chief part of South America, and of the West India Islands, they prohibited the settlement in those countries of all other nations; and indeed were so jealous of mere foreign visiters, that they would often fire at, capture, and plunder their single ships, that came for provisions, or water. An association was therefore entered into by certain sea-faring people of England and France, who were after a time joined by many Portuguese and Dutch, to effect forcible landings on the shores of the New World; which the influx of wealth into Spain had given them good reason to believe an Eldorado, where gold and other treasures were to be had for the fetching. Accordingly, in 1526, Thomas Tyson fitted out a privateer, as factor to an English company of merchants, and was accompanied by similar vessels of other nations; and the party having ravaged the coasts