If there is a very wet forestbed into which the leaves and branches fall they do not rot. Wood will rot when it is partly wet but if it is buried in water, it rots in parts. The most of its substance stays in it, becoming softened as we see the vegetable matter of swamps called "peat."

Sand and mud brought down and buried the peat and it was gradually pressed together and changed into coal. The largest coal fields are found in England and Pennsylvania.

Cretaceous comes from a Latin word meaning "chalk." Chalk is a soft, grayish-white limestone which contains the remains of shells.

The climate of the Cretaceous Age is much colder than the others. The chief animals are the lizards. They are cold-blooded and cannot stand a moderately cold winter. One of the most remarkable creatures is a huge snake-like form forty feet long, with a slim, arrowshaped head. Some of the sea-serpents are seventy-five feet or more in length. Their heads were large and flat, with eyes partly upwards.

They swim by means of two pairs of paddles. By the close of this age the birds increase and grow more like our birds. We now found the first mammals that have no pouches.

The age following the Cretaceous is called the Tertiary or Cenozoic period. The ages of ferns and cycads have passed away and the hardwood trees and evergreens of to-day now succeed them.

There are many thick skinned animals like the tapir, mastodon and Pachyderms.

The mastodon looked like an elephant. He lived on the land and fed on vegetable food.

The Pachyderms lived on plant food. We now find the first marine mammals such as the walrus, whale, seal and dolphin.

In Wyoming a fossil was found of a horse about the size of a fox. We begin to have many singing birds and a number of insects like our bees.

We still live in the Tertiary Age and farther on man comes. Grade 9.

ELSIE A. NEWTON.

The woodpecker is a friend to man. It does not injure trees as many believe, but is one of the trees best friends. It feeds on insects, worms and grubs that are injurious to trees. If the woodpecker pecks into a tree it is because there is a worm or grub there which would injure the tree far more than the hole caused by the bird's bill. The woodpecker is a sturdy looking fellow. [Draw .g. 1 and as you draw it make some remark about each part as:] The bill is long, strong and sharp, and very tough. The neck is strong but flexible. The woodpecker is not a graceful flyer. He flies in waves. [Fig. 6.]

The eggs are pure white and are usually from three to five in number.

5

'It is wrong to kill woodpeckers. They do much good and little harm. There should be laws protecting them.

B

GCOGRAPHY

Fourth and Fifth Grades.

BY PROF. J. M. DAVIS, Harvard University.

ELOW will be found an outline of work in Geography for the fourth and fifth grades of school work, pr pared by Prof. Davis for the grammar schools of Cambridge.

In int oducing it he says: "It is intended that some account of all the subjects introduced by the terms here following should be presented by the teacher before the terms themselves are employed. As far as possible, every subject should be first illustrated by home example, pictures, mod ls, globes or other wise; af er such illustration, it should be talked about until it becomes a familiar mental conception; then the geographical term by which it is named may be mentioned. When the term has been familiarly employed in several lessons, it thould be defined by the scholars, and the definition thus secu ed should be wri.ten down. The definition of the term as given in various text-books may then be consulted in grade V.

It is desirable that a series of somewhat systematic observations of home ge graphy, the seasons, the weat' er, the sun, moon, constellations, etc., st ould be undertaken by the scholars; the results should be entered with their dates in a class record-book, to be kept by the teache, and referred to when necessary for citation of observa ions. When fa ts hus learned become familia", their statement in text books may be compared with that written by the c ass from study of observations in the record-book.

The following numbered divisions are intended simply for conveni nce in separating various parts of the subj'ct; they need not corre pond to lesson headings; although it is desirable that each lesson hould present a definite, well rounded subject or group of subjects. Subjects prin'ed in italics are intended for grade V.; non-italicized subjects should be introduced into the lessors of grade V., as far as needed for good understanding. After the cur

rent year, it is desired that grade V., shou'd advance somewhat farther than is here indicated, on the basis of work during the current year in g ade IV. General description and narration should character'ze the taching in grade IV.; more definite de cription and location should disti gui h the work in grade V.

Outline.

1. General notions of direction and distance over lard and water, beginning at home and going abroad. Maps of Cambridge and of the vicinity of Boston. Compass; fifty foot measure. What would be found in going moderate distances north, northeast, east, etc.; towns, ponds, streams, and so on. Arithmetical illustrations of distance, by walking, driving, trains, ships, etc.

2. General notions of different kinds of land surface, in order to gain a basis for illustration further on. Land and water; large and small areas, high and low, barren, forest or field, hot and cold, wt and dry. Narrative, without expl nation of cau es, in grade IV.; distribution and something of explanation, (partly as review of grade IV.), in grade V.

3. Earth as a globe (sphere). So large that all that can be seen of it at once looks flat. Proofs of spherical form: ships at sea; circumnavigation; shadow on moon. Size: Arithmetical illu trations. Attraction: up and down mean from and towards the centre of the earth. Earth may be illustrated by a small globe.

4. Application of the facts learced under 2 to the earth as a globe Land and water. Oceals, continuous, large area; continents more or less separated, smaller area. General inspection of globe. Description and location of oceans and continents from globe (not from map.)

5. Sunshine. Size, distance, heat of sun: arithmetical illustrations. Sun shin ng in all directions like a red-hot ba 1. Ear h ge's little of entire sunshine. Dependence of all 4 lants and animals on this small part of sunshine. Moon and other planets, also spherical bodies like earth, la ger and smaller, farther from and nearer to Stars like other suns; distance; illustrations by various rapid motions. Earth alone in empty space.

sun.

7. Earth moves round the sun. Orbit. Seasons: altitude of sun in different parts of the earth; length of day and night; opposite conditions in opposite hemispheres. Year. Constellations visible at different times of the year.

8. L cat on of Cambridge and other places on the ear.h. Latitude a▾d longlitude. Their seasons; industries as affected by position, seasons, etc. School and vacation. Review of subj cts thus far learned, in their local applications.

9. Land and water. Oceans: level, broad, deep, salt; calm, stormy; even bottom; cold below 3000 feet; tempera'ure, variable with latitude near surface Currents, as eddies in the several oceans: drifts and streams Sailing vessels: free roadway and mo`ive power; steamers. Continuity of oceans. Islands in mid-ocean. Marine animals.

10. Continents. Revie of continental f rms on globe. Ilustration of continents on hemisphere and special maps. Drawing outline maps. Land surface rising a little above the broad and shallow depression occupied by the cceans. Uneven surface; bill; moun'ains; vo`canoes; highlands; valleys; stream; absolute and relative relief. Land animals. As urder section 2, r uch general description and narrative here for grade IV.; the same with more special exan ples, more definite locations, and more advanc d mapdrawing for grade V.

11. Coast lines, where water lies on land. Even and ragged coasts. Gulfs, bays, harbors, beaches, bars, cliffs, promon ories, capes isthmuses, peninsulas, islands near shore. Changes of rela

tive level determining coast line; work of waves in making cliffs, beaches, and bars. Tides.

12. Atmosphere. Air surrounding earth; rising over highest mountains. Burning, breathing, speaking, flying. Winds: carrying seeds, turning mills, moving sai's. Heat and cold. Zones. Clouds, rain and snow, dew and frost. Wet and dry regions. Thermometer, wind vane, rain guage. Weather maps, weather prediction and climate. Review of the earth's relation to the sun; rotation; revolution.

13. Rivers. Rain and SLOw; springs; streams; hills and mountains; slopes and val eys. Divides, drainage. Rivers and river branches, head, mouth. Lakes and waterfalls. River steamboats and rafts; M ssissipi. Factories: Merrimac. I e. Washing and creeping of soil (rock waste) down hill to stream ani rivers; washing along in channel; erosi' n of valleys; flood plains; deltas.

14. Habitation. Villages, cities ports, falls, fords Trails, roads, railroads canals. Population, dense and sparse. Commerce colonies. Products: subsistance; farming, milling, packing, fishing; industries; mines, forests, factories.

15. Races and ountries. Introduct on to political geography. People of our own kind, in this country and Europe; relation of colonies and mother countri s. Negroes, brought from Africa. Indians, original inhabitants, disappearing. Chinese, in th's country, as laborers; their vast numbers in China. Tribes, nations; savage, barbarous, half-civilized, and civilized. Countries or states Government: republics or confederations; kingdons: empires. Bondaries: natural and artificial; changed by war, treaty, or purchase. Modern methods of arbitration. Examples of these various subjects to be given, but without attempting completeness.

1, A man had a large tank 40 feet long, and 20 feet wide, and 10 feet deep. He built a partition from the upper right hand corner to the middle of the opposite long side. When full of water, how many gallons were in the smaller tank? How many in the larger tank?

2. What kind of a tank was the smaller? The larger? 3. Draw a plan of the tank on a scale of 1 inch to 5 feet. 4. How many barrels of water, containing 31 gallons each, would the triangular tank hold?

5. How many barrels would the trapez idal tank hold?

M

ARITHMETIC.

By WM. M. GIFFIN, Chicago.

Exercise I.

AKE, or have made, of cardboard or wood, a box whose inside

measurements will be as follows: -11 inches long, 7 inches

wide, and 3 inches deep. Show the children a cubic inch. How many layers of them will fill the box? How many rows in each layer? How many cubic inches in each row? How many altogether? When the answer 231 has been given, show them a gallon measure filled with water, if your box is water-tight, if not use wheat, corn, or dry sand filling the measure only level full. Empty the contents of the measure into the box. Fill in the blanks - a gallon contains cubic

A

30 ft.

1. I have a box 10 by 10 by 10 feet; how many gallons will it hold ?

Height. 4

No. of cords.

6

OW warm it is this morning! The children feel it and are restless, and you are in sympathy with them; for at this time, when everything reminds us that summer is at hand, and we are haunted by visions of field and shore, routine work possesses little charm.

Do not the little folks know your programme perfectly? They can tell you just what study comes next; and are not particularly enthusiastic over it. Try a change. Do the unexpected! "Childrer, instead of taking arithmetic first this morning, we will have a lesson in paper-cutting. You may pass paper and scissors." Note the effect. See their eyes shine! You are paid already. Our method of teaching Design in the fifth grade will be the same as that followed in the fourth.

The square is now modified bilaterally (6). Call for suggestions. Let the pupils in one row modify their squares on the upper edges, (7). Those in another row may modify the lower edges, (8). Others may modify both upper and lower edges, (9).

When several suggestions have been given, have each pupil make an original modification. Criticise these as to contrast, strength, unity, variety.

In the following illustrations, 10, 11, 12, 13 are types; possibly modifications f which follow each.

Here are some examples of historic ornament. Fig. 18 Byzantine; 2 is Saracenic; 3 and 4 are Gothic. Compare them with the examples studied in the fourth grade, and lead the pupils to see that these are bilateral or two-sided; that the opposite sides are alike, so we call them bi-symmetrical. Compare their proportions. Where is the greatest width in each ? Which have reversed curves ?

Notice the difference in these two curves. A has the same character throughc ut, while in B the character varies. See parts a. b. c. B possesses Variety: - the proper difference

of parts.

Which of the above ornaments has the greatest variety? Which is most beautiful? In drawing one of these follow this order: 1. The base form.

2 Proportion of parts.

3. Correction and finish.

B.

13.

Which best illustrate the principles previously mentioned? Which are best fitted for arrangement in borders? Which for centers? Which for surfaces?

After spending as much time as you think wise, in this work of modification, let each child select and draw, two of his best forms. (See sheet XV.)

Remember, that while many of the figures obtained may impress you as having a decidedly familiar look, they may, nevertheless, so far as the pupils who have produced them are concerned, be wholly original.

In the arrangement of units in design, an important principle is Rhythm: repetition with accent. It is this which makes 15 and 17 preferable to 14 and 16. The border on sheet XVI and the radical design on sheet XVII illustrate rhythm. See also that in these examples the shape of each unit is adapted to that of its neighbor.

In sheet XVII, the unit is the third modification of 11, alternated with a figure of smaller size, the shape of which has been adapted to the space. Where this adaptation or correlation of parts exists, the design is said to possess Repose.

Have the pupils make one arrangement for a birder, centre, or surface.

1. Draw the enclosing form. 2. Divide into repeats. 3. Select units and cut pattern. 4. Trace lightly. 5. Correct and finish. In constructing a design from colored paper, use two or three tones from one scale (Dominant Harmony.) As a rule the darker. is better for the background, as suggested by the half-tinting in shee's XVII, XVIII.

The following cut shows the folding and drawing which precede the cutting of the complete radial design.

As we finish the work of the year, let us give a few moments to retrospection. Our drawing has been three-fold in character: Constructive, Pictorial, Decorative. Here is a test of its value. Do the children like it? Have they gained in

1. Power of observation. 2. Independent thinking. 3. Ability to express their ideas by drawing. 4. Appreciation of the value of accuracy. 5. Appreciation of Nature's beauty. 6. Development of originative power.

If the study has been helpful on these lines, it is because you have made it so. In that schoolroom where the teacher's skilful tact, and radiant sympathy make language and number a delight, the lesson in drawing will never be tedious or dry.

When the time comes for recitation the pupils go to the board and write the paragraph tertatim et liberatim et punctatum, at the teachers dictation or better still from memory.

When the work is written allow pupils to exchange places and grade each other's work according to the following standard.

2% off for wrong punctuation. 3% off for misspelled or omitted word. 4% off for wrong capitalization.

Pupils then seat themselves, facing the board, if possible, open their books and pass criticisms upon criticisms.

If any critic has failed to grade correctly, all errors must be deducted from his own grade, thus stimulating the pupil to close circumspection in the matter of grading.

A few rules pertaining to capitalization and punctuation must be thoroughly committed and exercises should sometimes be given with which the pupil is wholly unfamiliar.

In this kind of work the pupil must of course depend upon his knowledge of rules and his own common sense in the matter of grading, the teacher making all final corrections.

Paraphrasing should also be made an essential feature of the work, careful attention being given to grammatical construction in the re-arrangment of sentences.