the subsequent reproduction. In the early grades when pupils fail in a concrete problem in arithmetic, it is frequently found that resort to "acting out" the situation supplies all the assistance needed. The real difficulty was not with the numbers but in failure to grasp the meaning of the situation in which the numbers were to be used.

In the upper grades literature and history, as already indicated, are often reinforced by dramatic activities. A sixth grade in Indianapolis engaged in dramatizing "Sleeping Beauty" not merely composed the words and the stage directions but also wrote the songs and the music for them. Such concentration on a single purpose of studies usually pursued independently stimulates work in each. Literary expression is less monotonous, the phrasing of an idea more delicate and flexible, than when composition is an end in itself; and while of course the music is not likely to be remarkable, it almost always has a freshness and charm exceeding that which could be attained from the same pupils if they were merely writing music.

14. Play, Work, and Drudgery

Play, work, and drudgery are three types of activity which can be distinguished largely by the attitude of the participant. Play is an activity engaged in for the sake of the satisfaction resulting from the activity itself. In the case of work, the activity is directed by oneself or others for the purpose of attaining a certain result regardless of the existence of satisfaction in the procedure. Drudgery connotes that the work is imposed by another and that the purpose is forgotten or so remote as not to motivate. In the case of drudgery, purpose is not functioning. Drudgery also implies a narrow range of activity, perhaps little adapted to the individual and in all probability, forced attention. What is often work or drudgery can become raised to the play level. It is the business of the teacher to raise activities functioning on the level of drudgery to the level of work, and to raise the activities functioning on the work level to the level of play, as soon and as effectively as possible. It is not argued that work should be made play, but it is emphasized that work done in the spirit of play will be more efficient; neither is it argued that play should be made work, but it is true that

that play which requires considerable work is of most value, provided the spirit of play is not sacrificed.

15. Criteria for Judging Plays and Games

[DEWEY, John, "Froebel's Educational Principles," Elementary School Record, pp. 145, 149, June, 1900.]

The teacher [must ask] two questions: Will the proposed mode of play appeal to the child as his own? Is it something of which he has the instinctive roots in himself, and which will mature the capacities that are struggling for manifestation in him? And again: Will the proposed activity give that sort of expression to these impulses that will carry the child on to a higher plane of consciousness and action, instead of merely exciting him, and then leaving him just where he was before, plus a certain amount of nervous exhaustion and appetite for more excitation in the future? .

The peculiar problem of the early grades is, of course, to get hold of the child's natural impulses and instincts, and to utilize them so that the child is carried on to a higher plane of perception and judgment, and equipped with more efficient habits: so that he has an enlarged and deepened consciousness, and increased control of powers of action. Wherever this result is not reached, play results in mere amusement and not in educative growth.

Upon the whole, constructive or "built up" work (with, of course, the proper alternation of story, song, and game which may be connected, so far as is desirable, with the ideas involved in the construction) seems better fitted than anything else to secure these two factors-initiation in the child's own impulse and termination upon a higher plane. It brings the child in contact with a great variety of material: wood, tin, leather, yarn, etc.; it supplies a motive for using these materials in real ways instead of going through exercises having no meaning except a remote symbolic one; it calls into play alertness of the senses and acuteness of observation; it demands clear-cut imagery of the ends to be accomplished, and requires ingenuity and invention in planning; it makes necessary concentrated attention and personal responsibility in execution, while the results are in such tangible form that the child may be led to judge his own work and improve his standards.

16. Periods in the Development of Play

[JUDD, Charles Hubbard, Introduction to the Scientific Study of Education, pp. 267-268. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1918.]

Not only is play natural, but numerous scientific studies reveal the fact that in the animal world and in man's life, play contributes in no unimportant degree to the individual's development. These scientific studies have shown that play follows definite lines of development. There is first the play of early infancy, which consists in the rhythmical movement of the limbs and in the grasping after objects which satisfy the senses. This is the period of the rattle. There is at this stage no regard for others, no social interest. Then comes a second stage, where play is made up of imitative acts. This is the period of the girl's doll and of the boy's kit of tools. The child's attention is now centered on others and their doings, and this outward attention furnishes the individual with his models of action. Then come the plays of contest and competition, when the child, now of school age, matches himself against his companions in speed or strength. This is the period of running games. Imitation has ripened into the kind of rivalry which helps the individual to realize his personal powers. Following competition comes the period of team play, in which social union with some of one's companions is combined with contest against others. The adolescent child is now becoming aware of the uses of social sympathy and coöperation. At each of these stages some of the earlier forms of play survive, and all ripen into the form of play characteristic of adult life, where the competitions are against intellectual obstacles more than against physical. Adult play demands skill and intellectual mastery of complex problems.

When one has learned that there is a natural and orderly evolution of the play impulse, one realizes that it is rational to follow this natural order in promoting individual development. Play takes on a dignity that it never had in the days when it was looked on as an uncurbed attribute of infancy to be tolerated only because there seemed no possible way of eradicating it.

17. The Educative Worth of Games

[KEITH, J. A. H., Elementary Education, pp. 209-211. Chicago, Scott Foresman & Co., 1905.]

The educative worth of games can be easily formulated. Games are truly educative to the extent that they equip the

child with elements of behavior socially serviceable to him, or with standards of judgment, or with habits of ready and accurate judgment which serve him as types in different social situations. For illustration:-The politeness towards equals in many games becomes immediately serviceable to the child; the violation of a rule of the game has its penalty attached, and this, together with other features of games, leads to the standard, "Play Fair”; the changing situations must be seized upon instantly and a plan of action determined upon.

Nearly all games are learned by conscious imitation but, as elsewhere in human activity, progress is possible only through invention. Many children invent games for themselves, or change and modify them to suit conditions. On the contrary, some children not only always imitate, but are not able to do even this well, and consequently, stand aside as mere onlookers. Those who imitate well become amateurs, enthusiasts, "cranks," "rooters," or even reliable players; those who cannot imitate successfully may attend games because it is the style to do so, but they regard them as stupid or senseless; those who can improvise-invent expedients within the rules become the "stars,” the "professionals." From this standpoint, an acquaintance with games is desirable as a basis for appreciating the games played by others and thus gaining the power to understand them.

Two things should now be evident: The playground is an important educative agency; and the supervision of pupils' games is an essential function of the school, or teacher. Teachers are not responsible for all the influences that play upon their pupils, for there are extra-schoolroom influences of the street, home, and associates over which the teacher has no control; but a good teacher will exert such an influence over his pupils that it follows them during their waking hours and even affects their dreams. It is, therefore, a duty of the teacher to influence the pupils' ideals of play.

Not everything can be taught through games, nor should there be schoolroom games in all grades. In the lower grades many things may be learned through games, and in all grades the games at recesses and intermissions should be directed and supervised so that good, not harm, may result. Wrong social attitudes, such as sneaking, cheating, or even bullying, may develop in some children if their games are not rightly directed. The desire to win becomes so strong that it justifies the means -rivalry and jealousy supplant coöperation and sympathy.

The element of physical exercise in games deserves a word of comment. Physical exercise with a real, interesting end in view is accompanied by feelings of exhilaration and of interest. It is therefore more serviceable, because it associates pleasurable feelings with bodily activity, than is a series of gymnastic exercises, however carefully the latter may be planned, for the end (physical exercise or health) is usually so remote that it has little emotional intensity.

18. Play Activities

[HETHERINGTON, Daisy A., "An Evaluation of Some of the Methods Used in the Development of Health Habits," Journal of Educational Method, Vol. 4, pp. 381–384, May, 1925.]

In the great mass of literature on health education that has been produced in the last three years, much emphasis has been placed upon the expression of health ideas through the medium of pictures, health scrapbooks, health posters, and similar devices. So much has been written on the interest that the drawing of healthy, well-nourished children will develop, or the enthusiasm that may be aroused by picturing the iniquitous coffee pot as he scurries out of the room with the all-conquering milk bottle in hot pursuit, that many educators are beginning to ask if those directly responsible for health education conceive of this kind of work as constituting a basic procedure in health teaching.

Educators are questioning the value, for example, that the making of a health scrapbook has in developing health habits. They tell us that they are in no wise convinced that because a child experiences satisfaction in pasting pictures in his health scrapbook of the "baby sleeping with open windows" or of the "skinny boy who fails to drink his milk," that there is any guarantee that the same child will sleep with his windows open or will drink milk instead of tea or coffee. They suggest that the satisfaction experienced might tend to induce the child to paste more pictures in his scrapbook, but they cannot be sure that the satisfaction will eventuate in health habits suggested by the pictures pasted in his book.

In other words, they are asking what seems to be a very legitimate fundamental educational question. They want to know what real value this type of work has in helping boys and girls to live according to the best health standards. The philosophy which has often accompanied this rather extreme