holds us for its own sake, and we do not demand of it that it take us into something beyond itself. With the child and his ball, the amateur and the hearing of a symphony, the immediate engrosses. Its value is there, and is there in what is directly present.

On the other hand, we have cases of indirect, transferred, or technically mediate interest. That is, things indifferent, or even repulsive in themselves, often become of interest because of their assuming relationships and connections we are previously unaware. Many a student, of so-called practical make-up, has found mathematical theory, once repellent, lit up by great attractiveness when he studied some form of engineering in which this theory was a necessary tool. The musical score and the technique of fingering, in which the child can find no interest when it is presented as an end in itself, when it is isolated, becomes fascinating when the child realizes its place and bearing in helping him give better and fuller utterance to his love of song.

Conditions Giving Rise to Mediate Interest.-In reality the principle of "making things interesting" means that subjects shall be selected in relation to the child's present experience, powers and needs; and that (in case he does not perceive or appreciate the relevancy) the teacher shall present the new material in such a way as to enable the child to appreciate its bearings, its relationships, its necessity for him.

11. Importance of Interest

[JAMES, William, Principles of Psychology, Vol. I, pp. 402-403. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1890.]

Millions of items of the outward order are present to my senses which never properly enter into my experience. Why? Because they have no interest for me. My experience is what I agree to attend to. Only those items which I notice shape my mind—without selective interest, experience is an utter chaos. Interest alone gives accent and emphasis, light and shade, background and foreground-intelligible perspective, in a word. It varies in every creature, but without it the consciousness of every creature would be a gray, chaotic indiscriminateness, impossible for us even to conceive.

12. Interests

[SMALL, Albion, General Sociology, pp. 426, 433, 434. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1914.]

Interests are the stuff that men are made of. More accurately expressed, the last elements to which we can reduce the actions of human beings are units which we may conveniently name "interests. . . ." Human interests, then, are the ultimate terms of calculation in sociology. The whole life process, so far as we know it, whether viewed in the individual or in its social phase, is at last the process of developing, adjusting, and satisfying interests.

13. How to Become Interested

[JAMES, William, Talks to Teachers, pp. 93-99. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1915.]

Can we now formulate any general principle by which the later and more artificial interests connect themselves with these early ones that the child brings with him to the school?

Fortunately, we can: there is a very simple law that relates the acquired and the native interests with each other.

Any object not interesting in itself may become interesting through becoming associated with an object in which an interest already exists. The two associated objects grow, as it were, together: the interesting portion sheds its quality over the whole; and thus things not interesting in their own right borrow an interest which becomes as real and as strong as that of any natively interesting thing. The odd circumstance is that the borrowing does not impoverish the source, the objects taken together being more interesting, perhaps, than the originally interesting portion was by itself.

This is one of the most striking proofs of the range of application of the principle of association of ideas in psychology. An idea will infect another with its own emotional interest when they have become both associated together into any sort of a mental total. As there is no limit to the various associations into which an interesting idea may enter, one sees in how many ways an interest may be derived.

You will understand this abstract statement easily if I take the most frequent of concrete examples,-the interest which things borrow from their connection with our own personal welfare. The most natively interesting object to man is his own personal self and its fortunes. We accordingly see that the

moment a thing becomes connected with the fortunes of the self, it forthwith becomes an interesting thing. Lend the child his books, pencils, and other apparatus: then give them to him, make them his own, and notice the new light with which they instantly shine in his eyes. He takes a new kind of care of them altogether. In mature life, all the drudgery of a man's business or profession, intolerable in itself, is shot through with engrossing significance because he knows it to be associated with his personal fortunes. What more deadly uninteresting object can there be than a railroad time-table? Yet where will you find a more interesting object if you are going on a journey, and by its means can find your train? At such times the timetable will absorb a man's entire attention, its interest being borrowed solely from its relation to his personal life. From all these facts there emerges a very simple abstract program for the teacher to follow in keeping the attention of the child: Begin with the line of his native interests, and offer him objects that have some immediate connection with these. The kindergarten methods, the object-teaching routine, the blackboard and manual-training work, all recognize this feature. Schools in which these methods preponderate are schools where discipline is easy, and where the voice of the master claiming order and attention in threatening tones need never be heard.

Next, step by step, connect with these first objects and experiences the later objects and ideas which you wish to instill. Associate the new with the old in some natural and telling way, so that the interest, being shed along from point to point, finally suffuses the entire system of objects of thought.

This is the abstract statement; and, abstractly, nothing can be easier to understand. It is in the fulfillment of the rule that the difficulty lies for the difference between an interesting and a tedious teacher consists in little more than the inventiveness by which the one is able to mediate these associations and connections, and in the dulness in discovering such transitions which the other shows. One teacher's mind will fairly coruscate with points of connection between the new lesson and the circumstances of the children's other experience. Anecdotes and reminiscences will abound in her talk; and the shuttle of interest will shoot backward and forward, weaving the new and the old together in a lively and entertaining way. Another teacher has no such inventive fertility, and his lesson will always be a dead and heavy thing. This is the psychological meaning of the Herbartian principle of 'preparation' for each lesson,

and of correlating the new with the old. It is the psychological meaning of that whole method of concentration in studies of which you have been recently hearing so much. When the geography and English and history and arithmetic simultaneously make cross-references to one another, you get an interesting set of processes all along the line.

If, then, you wish to insure the interest of your pupils, there is only one way to do it; and that is to make certain that they have something in their minds to attend with, when you begin to talk. That something can consist in nothing but a previous lot of ideas already interesting in themselves, and of such a nature that the incoming novel objects which you present can dovetail into them and form with them some kind of a logically associated or systematic whole. Fortunately, almost any kind of a connection is sufficient to carry the interest along. What a help is our Philippine war at present in teaching geography! But before the war you would ask the children if they ate pepper with their eggs, and where they supposed the pepper came from. Or ask them if glass is a stone, and, if not, why not; and then let them know how stones are formed and glass manufactured. External links will serve as well as those that are deeper and more logical. But interest, once shed upon a subject, is liable to remain always with that subject. Our acquisitions become in a measure portions of our personal self; and little by little, as cross-associations multiply and habits of familiarity and practice grow, the entire system of our objects of thought consolidates, most of it becoming interesting for some purposes and in some degree.

An adult man's interests are almost every one of them intensely artificial: they have slowly been built up. The objects of professional interest are most of them, in their original nature, repulsive; but by their connection with such natively exciting objects as one's personal fortune, one's social responsibilities, and especially by the force of inveterate habit, they grow to be the only things for which in middle life a man profoundly cares. But in all these the spread and consolidation have followed nothing but the principles first laid down. If we could recall for a moment our whole individual history, we should see that our professional ideals and the zeal they inspire are due to nothing but the slow accretion of one mental object to another, traceable backward from point to point till we reach the moment when, in the nursery or in the schoolroom, some little story told, some little object shown, some little

operation witnessed, brought the first new object and new interest within our ken by associating it with some one of those primitively there. The interest now suffusing the whole system took its rise in that little event, so insignificant to us now as to be entirely forgotten. As the bees in swarming cling to one another in layers till the few are reached whose feet grapple the bough from which the swarm depends; so with the objects of our thinking,-they hang to each other by associated links, but the original source of interest in all of them is the native interest which the earliest one once possessed.

14. Building Interests

[KILPATRICK, W. H., "Coercion and Learning," Journal of Educational Method, February, 1922, Vol. 1, pp. 235-236.]

Building interests is perhaps as important a work as education can undertake. Whether it is feasible to build an interest along any given line depends first of all on the native capacities of the person . . . two necessary prerequisites for an abiding interest: first, enough capacity for the activities involved to bring continued satisfaction; and second, a growing activity. The first may refer more specifically to one dominant talent, as for mathematics, or music, or it may contemplate only a combination of more ordinary powers. But there must be the possibility of continued satisfaction from the exercise of the activity. The second prerequisite, that of the quality of growing, it seems is not equally necessary for all people but on the whole the interest will not be abidingly gripping unless it continually faces at least some element of novelty. . . . The essential of the procedure is our old law of Effect, Exercise with satisfaction. We must somehow get vigorous action along the desired line and of a kind that brings a high degree of satisfaction. Suppose we say it in tabular fashion:

...

1. Get the activity going with zest-if possible in the face of obstacles that challenge all but the last reserves of power.

2. See that success attends.

3. If possible, let there be approval from those whose approval is valued. If the two prerequisites have been met and this procedure can be followed-you will with practical certainty see an interest growing.