amples of expert reasoning. What principles can be derived from these examples? What good may you hope to derive from these examples?

16. What is logic? What good may one hope to derive from its study if the subject is properly taught?

17. Make a lesson plan that will show the essential steps in the teaching process when the teacher's aim is to train children in effective thinking.

REFERENCES

ANGELL, J. R., Introduction to Psychology (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1918), Chap. x.

BAGLEY, W. C., Educative Process (New York, Macmillan Co., 1905), Chaps. xix, xx.

BOLTON, F. E., Everyday Psychology for Teachers (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923), Chap. xv.

Principles of Education (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910), Chaps. xx, xxii, xxiii.

CAMERON, E. H., Psychology and the School (New York, Century Co., 1921), Chaps. vii-ix.

COLVIN, S. S., The Learning Process (New York, Macmillan Co., 1921), Chaps. xx-xxii.

Introduction to High School Teaching (New York, Mac

millan Co., 1917), Chap. xiii.

DEWEY, John, Democracy and Education (New York, Macmillan Co., 1916), Chap. xii.

How We Think (Chicago, D. C. Health & Co., 1910). EDWARDS, A. S., Psychology of Elementary Education (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925), Chap. viii.

FREEMAN, F. N., How Children Learn (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1917), Chap. xi.

GATES, A. I., Psychology for Students of Education (New York, Macmillan Co., 1924), Chap. xiv.

HUNTER, W. S., General Psychology (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1919), Chaps. viii, x.

JAMES, William, Principles of Psychology (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1890), Vol. II, pp. 325–371.

MILLER, H. L., Directing Study (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922), Chaps. iii, vii.

NORSWORTHY, Naomi, and WHITLEY, Mary T., Psychology of Childhood (New York, Macmillan Co., 1923), Chap. x.

PILLSBURY, W. B., Essentials of Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1920), Chap. ix.

Psychology of Reasoning (New York, D. Appleton & Co).

1910).

PARKER, S. C., Methods of Teaching in High Schools (Boston, Ginn & Co., 1920), Chap. ix.

ROBINSON, D. S., Principles of Reasoning (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1924).

THORNDIKE, E. L., Principles of Teaching (New York, A. G. Seiler, 1916), Chap. x.

WOODWORTH, R. S., Psychology; A Study of Mental Life (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1921), Chap. xviii.

CHAPTER XVI

ATTENTION, INTEREST AND MOTIVATION

The selected readings will be of practical value for they indicate how to attract and hold the attention and how to build up interests in the child.

The kinds of attention or rather the different ways of securing attention are enumerated and discussed in the selections taken or adapted from Colvin and Bagley (1), Titchener (2) and Turner and Betts (3). Since all attention is active, some instructors might object as Titchener has done to the use of the terms "passive attention," "active attention," and "secondary passive attention." Pillsbury recognizes voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary attention. The subjective and objective conditions of attention are very important. The selection from Dewey on "Reflective Attention" (4), and the short digest of Adams' "Extension of Pillsbury's Theory of Attention" (5), are suggestive to students of education.

The characteristics, nature and importance of attention are given in extracts from Charters (7,10), Horne (9), and Dewey (10). The methods for acquiring and building interests are given in the selections from James (11,13), Kilpatrick (14), and Woodworth (15). That interest is in the child and not in the teacher or subject matter as such is constantly stressed. Paulsen pictures life as being barren and uninteresting if we had no difficulties to surmount. The tasks that challenge or interest us most are the ones that are so difficult that we can reach the goal only after much effort. It is important for interest, however, that the goal or some part of it be always reached. Thorndike makes the application of interest concrete in his New Methods of Teaching Arithmetic (18).

Selections from Woodworth and Norsworthy emphasize the importance of motives and drives in learning

1. Kinds of Attention

[PILLSBURY, W. B., Essentials of Psychology, Chap. v. Copyright, 1915, by the Macmillan Co.] (Adapted.)

[COLVIN, S. S, The Learning Process, pp. 261-262. Copyright, 1911, by the Macmillan Co.] (Adapted.)

[COLVIN, S. S. and BAGLEY, W. C., Human Behavior, pp. 55-60. Copyright, 1912, by the Macmillan Co.] (Adapted.)

The individual attends to those details of an experience that have some interest or value. Sometimes, the object of attention has an immediate value, other times a remote value. Sometimes we cannot help giving our attention. At other times it is given only with great effort. At still other times we become so interested in some activity that we cannot but give attention.

Out of a great multitude of stimuli that assail us on all sides through the several senses, certain stimuli are selected for attention to the relative exclusion of other stimuli.

There are three kinds of attention or rather three general modes of securing attention, the non-voluntary, the voluntary, and involuntary. Other psychologists consider attention as passive, active, and secondary passive. Regardless of the descriptive terms used to denote kinds or conditions of attention, all kinds are active.

Passive attention, so-called, is of the spontaneous, involuntary type. The exciting stimuli have for us some immediate interest. Bright lights, loud noises, and other stimuli characterized by intensity, change, movement, rhythm, and organic needs, force themselves upon us. In other words, this kind of attention is conditioned by the nature of the stimuli. It is always given without effort, and may or may not be interesting.

Active or voluntary attention is conditioned by social pressure and is accompanied by effort. The end is often something remote. Determination, purpose, desire for social approval and duty are generally the conditioning factors. With the mental development of the child there comes greater and greater power for sustained attention. To give attention of this sort often means the foregoing of some immediate pleasure for some remote end. This ability to give attention to that which at present is merely an aim to be achieved or ideal

to be realized is one of the fundamental psychological laws of human progress.

Bagley makes secondary passive or non-voluntary attention the end of instruction. It is a well-known fact that activities which we attend to at first with much effort, and which require a great amount of active or voluntary attention, are later attended to spontaneously or with interest. As Bagley says, "We become habituated in the course of time to almost anything that we persevere in, no matter how disagreeable that thing may have been at the outset. That is, the inhibition of distracting impulses becomes a habit, becomes unconscious."

Secondary passive or non-voluntary attention is conditioned by the idea in mind, the hereditary pattern, the mental attitude of the moment, or education, and is accompanied by interest.

The different forms, kinds, or conditions of attention cannot always be distinguished, but they serve the practical purposes of classification.

2. Attention: Stages of Development

[TITCHENER, E. B., Textbook of Psychology, p. 275. Copyright, 1910, by the Macmillan Co.] (Adapted.)

Attention appears at three stages of development: (1) as primary attention determined by the character of the stimuli acting upon the individual; (2) as secondary attention, during which attention is conditioned by a percept or idea, but with effort, and (3) as derived primary attention, characterized by interest, purpose, or idea in mind.

In a general way, the period of education is a period of secondary attention, and the period of achievement and mastery is a period of derived primary attention. Education consists, psychologically, in an alternation of secondary attention and derived primary attention.