sponses to them mean real knowledge, but it is of little consequence what sort of images arouse the responses.

6. Make-Believe and Fancy

[KEITH, J. A. H., Elementary Education, p. 205. Chicago, Scott Foresman Co., 1907.]

Through the process just mentioned, however long it may continue, the child gets knowledge, and words and actions to express this knowledge. And with this equipment he begins his constructive career of learning through doing. He "makes believe"; that is, he acts as if he were a cat, a flower, a mouse, or a goblin; he acts as if a cat were an elephant, a tiny doll, a real baby, a crust of bread, a piece of cake, etc. This is fancy— regarding as real that which is unreal. In its first manifestations in the child, this fancy seems to be spontaneous-not a planned thing, but a natural phase of development. It grows by what it feeds on, and becomes significant in the formation of character as it is guided and directed by social criticism and suggestion.

Not all make-believes are worth while, even though all may be interesting and pleasurable to the child. The make-believe of the fairy story is worth while because it is essentially moral (in general) in its influence; it is true to life in all vital relations. So, too, make-believes with dolls, and the manifold plays of children founded upon human occupations and relationships are valuable in giving the child an appreciation of these life realities in terms which we can comprehend.

7. The Training of Imagery

[ANGELL, J. R., Introduction to Psychology, pp. 166-167. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1918.]

Individuals vary as regards their control over different kinds of imagery and as regards their native preferences in the use of one kind or another in their thinking. It will be recognized that within limits there may well be considerable advantage in the ability to use special kinds of imagery in the solution of particular sorts of problems. The question naturally arises, therefore, whether one can train imagery, and if so, how to go about it.

The best experimental evidence seems to show that a very considerable development of specific imagery may be achieved by the voluntary attempt to make use of it, provided there be a reasonable body of it available to start with. One can thus

by very little effort develop visual imagery by compelling one's self, for example, to solve simple geometrical problems by means of such images. Nobody has as yet hit upon any reliable method for eliciting imagery which is at the outset substantially lacking. Owing to our ability to substitute one form for another, it is found very difficult to create conditions which in any complete way compel us to use a particular type.

It is not without interest in connection with this general question of training imagery to note that the forms of imagery which are preferred do not necessarily correspond to the sensory processes which are preferred. One may, for example, learn most easily by the ear, and still make little use of auditory imagery; or one may learn most readily through the eye and yet rely but little upon visual imagery for recall.

After all, the great point is that whatever forms of imagery one employs, they shall be flexible and reliable. Practice is the only road which one can travel to secure these ends.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Of what importance is imagination to the learner? To the teacher?

2. How do children differ from adults in the kind of images they have?

3. Would it be advisable to separate pupils into different classes according to their prevailing imagery? Is it advisable to appeal to any one type of imagery in teaching?

4. How does the imagination of the child change with age? 5. Why do children lie? What educational treatment do they

need?

6. How may we develop in the child a specific imagery?

7. Can you sometimes hear or see things that are purely imagery? Explain.

8. What are the steps to follow in getting children to use (a) reproductive and (b) constructive imagination in learning penmanship, drawing, and a geography lesson on importation of foodstuffs and clothing in a given city?

9. A great preacher once said that "a social imagination was one of the best assets that an individual could possess." What do you think he meant?

10. In what sense is imagination a basis for thinking?

11. How does imagination differ from memory? Use some classroom experience to illustrate your answer.

12. "The key to the training of imagination lies in the proper development of sense-perception." Explain

13. What subjects can be utilized most easily in the development of the imagination?

14. Distinguish between reproductive and creative imagery. Should the latter receive any attention in the school? Why?

REFERENCES

ANGELL, J. R., Introduction to Psychology (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1918), Chap. ix.

BETTS, G. H., The Mind and Its Education (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1924), Chap. viii.

BOLTON, F. H., Everyday Psychology for Teachers (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923), Chap. xiv.

CAMERON, E. H., Psychology and the School (New York, Century Co., 1921), Chap. vi.

COLVIN, S. S., and BAGLEY, W. S., Human Behavior (New York, Macmillan Co., 1913), Chap. xiv.

The Learning Process (New York, Macmillan Co., 1921), Chaps. ix-xiii.

GALTON, Francis, Inquiries into Human Faculty (1883), pp. 57

112.

MÜNSTERBERG, HUGO, Psychology and the Teacher (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1909), Chap. xvi.

NORSWORTHY, Naomi and WHITLEY, Mary T., Psychology of Childhood (New York, Macmillan Co., 1923), Chap. ix.

PILLSBURY, W. B., Essentials of Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1920), Chap. viii.

RUSK, R. R., Introduction to Experimental Education (New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1919), Chap. vii.

SANDIFORD, Peter, Mental and Physical Life of School Children (New York, Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), Chap. xv. TITCHENER, E. B., Primer of Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1899), Chap. x.

THORNDIKE, E. L., Elements of Psychology (New York, A. G. Seiler, 1907), Chap. iii.

WOODWORTH, R. S., Psychology (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1921), Chaps. xiv, xv, xix.

CHAPTER XV

THINKING AND TEACHING TO THINK

Reflective thinking represents the highest level of intellectual behavior. The readings are selected for this chapter with the view of informing the student of education about the nature of the thinking process, the place of abstraction and generalization in the educative process, the nature and causes of poor thinking, and how to secure more effective thinking. The quotations from Dewey (3) and Lyman (4) show that induction and deduction are two related kinds of thinking.

These readings show that only in so far as the individual thinks does he "understand," see relationships, and organize his knowledge or experiences. To know how to direct the thinking of others, the teachers must know the several factors of the process (3,5,6,8,10,11,12). These are:

1. A difficulty to be solved

2. The analysis of the difficulty and its statement in the form of a problem

3. Suggestions as to the solution of the problem

4. Trying out the suggestions, developing by reasoning the bearing of each, and stating the conclusions

5. Verifying the conclusions by further observation and experimentation. Children are shown to differ in thinking from adults in technique only.

The following principles derived from studies of children's thinking should be observed in the teacher's attempt to improve the children's thinking:

1. The children must be given an opportunity to think

2. Facts of the curriculum must be grouped around problems which appear vital to children

3. Children must be permitted to offer suggestions toward the solution of problems

4. Children must be taught to judge the value of facts 5. They must also be taught to state their conclusions clearly, basing them upon the facts used

6. They should be taught to verify their conclusions

7. Finally, they should be taught as far as possible to use terms precisely.

The child must acquire through induction the terms, rules, and generalizations which he uses in efficient thinking. He can develop skill in the application of established rules, principles, and laws through deduction. However, each lesson will involve both inductive and deductive movements.

1. Thinking Defined

[DEWEY, John, How We Think, pp. 6, 105-106. New York, D. C. Heath & Co., 1910.]

Thinking is defined as that operation in which present facts suggest other facts (or truths) in such a way as to induce belief in the latter upon the ground or warrant of the former. ... Active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends constitutes reflective thought. . . .

Alertness, flexibility, curiosity, are the essentials; dogmatism, rigidity, prejudice, caprice, arising from routine, passion, and flippancy are fatal.

2. Chance Results of Reasoning

[JAMES, William, Principles of Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 339-340. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1890.]

The results of reasoning may be hit upon by accident. The stereoscope was actually a result of reasoning; it is conceivable, however, that a man playing with pictures and mirrors might accidentally have hit upon it. Cats have been known to open doors by pulling latches, etc. But no cat, if the latch got out of order, could open the door again, unless some new accident of random fumbling taught her to associate some new total movement with the total phenomenon of the closed door. A reasoning man, however, would open the door by first analyzing the hindrance. He would ascertain what particular feature of the door was wrong. The lever, for example, does