means that it learns by doing. No amount of demonstration will enable the baby to walk. This principle of self-activity applies to all mental activity as well as motor. Frequently a teacher, although believing in the principle of self-activity, calls upon her pupils to think, sets the material before them and then does the thinking herself. The principle that the learner learns by doing is completely disregarded in such a case. This principle is often violated in cases of learning involving objective manipulation and bodily activity as in the case of the teacher who takes a piece of paper-cutting out of the child's hand to demonstrate how to proceed and then does a large share of the problem.

One of the most difficult problems of the beginning teacher is to determine how much real mental activity has taken place in the mind of the pupil. The supervisor should assist the teacher in analyzing the psychological processes in a simple, concrete manner, and above all show the teacher clearly how to check up by asking other questions. Selfactivity, especially in reflective thinking, requires time. Taking words out of the mouths of children discourages them from future attempts to engage in discussions. Much bullying and domineering on the playground is leadership activity gone wrong.

Children vary widely in leadership and the understanding of social situations. In some cases the teacher has to redirect or repress the wrong type of leadership that appears. Pupils can be made conscious of the problems involved in leadership and stimulated to develop the necessary qualities through the study of the great leaders in history and fiction, and in social and political affairs. Committee work, socialized recitations, portrayal of characters in dramatization, afford opportunities for training in some of the capacities of leadership and an understanding of social situations.

6. Habits to Be Formed in Supervised Study [JOHNSON, William H., "Supervised Study in the High School and the Seventh and Eighth Grades," Chicago School Journal, May, 1924, pp. 325-328.] (Abridged.)

Study-habits necessarily vary with the nature of the subject. Here again the teacher must discriminate between general study

habits and those which relate only specifically to her particular subject. Thus in mathematics the following are particularly important for success in that field.

1. The habit of making a mental summary of what is given in a problem and what is to be found.

2. The habit of getting and holding the conditions of the problem in general terms-to avoid the extra effort and confusion which result from holding involved verbal statements and wrong numbers in mind.

3. The habit of deciding before making the computations what you will do with a partial answer when you get it.

4. The habit of deciding whether the answer "when found" seems reasonable before going through the actual proof. In the field of history we find such habits to be developed as:

1. The habit of forming moral judgments.

2. Habit of forming accurate chronological judgments.

3. Habit of suspending judgment until all possible facts are at hand.

4. Habit of critically evaluating data and evidence.

5. Habit of generalization and application.

In the field of science the following habits are essential:

1. The habit of demanding objective as opposed to subjective data.

2. The habit of securing verifiable data and records.

3. The habit of demanding impartial data.

4. The habit of citing expert opinion when objective data cannot be secured.

Conclusion: At the present time teachers are putting the greatest emphasis on the weakness which pupils display in the subjectmatter. Little attention is given to the probable causes of these weaknesses. In some schools it has been assumed that by compelling the pupils to study under the supervision of the teacher these deficiencies would be corrected. But merely providing a new environment does not imply greater achievement. It is the method of study that must be consciously developed and directed or redirected. The development of good mental habits is as important (if not more so), in the education of the individual pupil, as the mastery of certain subject-matter. Ability to do is more important than information.

7. Methods of Conducting Supervised Study

[JOHNSON, William H., "Supervised Study in the High School and the Seventh and Eighth Grades," Chicago School Journal, May, 1924, pp. 325-328.] (Adapted.)

Supervised study does not consist in merely passing up and down the aisles to see that the pupils are working. It requires a special technic. "Pupils should be conscious of the fact that they are learning certain definite habits of study which may be applied to all the types of subject-matter which they may be called upon to assimilate."

Give pupils a study-habit test. The following is suggested as a suitable eighth grade test: "(1) Is it better to study a lesson just before a recitation or two or three hours before? Why? (2) What are the advantages of having a study program-a special time of the day for the preparation of each lesson? (3) Give the three best reasons you can for picking out the important points of a lesson as a part of your preparation for it. (4) What are the advantages of recalling the facts in your lesson from time to time during the preparation of the lesson? (5) Suppose you are asked to criticize a classmate's answer. Mention three things which might be wrong with the idea or thought in the answer."

After completing the test, it should be discussed in class. It will help the teacher discover what ideas the pupils possess, and what needs to be emphasized. The appropriate study habits should be drilled upon until they are thoroughly fixed in the pupils' minds. The teacher should seize every opportunity to exercise the habit in the classroom. If it is impossible to exercise the habit in school, the teacher should assist the pupils in drawing up a program to be assigned daily as evidence that the pupil is mindful of the habit to be formed. It is well to give occasional tests to see how the habit is being formed.

The following habits are faulty and should be substituted by the proper habit: (1) verbatim memorization; (2) failure to be punctual; (3) failure on the part of the pupil to understand a question though he attempts to answer it; (4) dependence upon the teacher; (5) the habit of relying solely on the textbook; (6) the habit of mastering each

lesson as though it were a detached portion unrelated to any other lesson.

In order to meet with success the teacher should observe the following: (1) do not emphasize too many changes in technic at the same time; (2) the pupils should feel that they are making progress; (3) lessons should be shortened at first since concentration must be on the process of forming new habits; (4) the pupils should be shown the desirability of the new habit to be formed; (5) make the pupils understand that their lack of efficiency at the start is but temporary; (6) in some cases it may not be wise to insist on new habits.

8. Supervised Study

[REAVIS, W. C., "The Administration of Supervised Study," School Review, June, 1924, pp. 413-419.] (Adapted.)

The reasons for failure in supervised study are: (1) teachers do not know how to direct pupil study, (2) some teachers look upon supervised study as a general universal method to be applied everywhere, and (3) blunders in the administration of supervised study are committed.

In order for supervised study to be successful the following conditions must be met: (1) teachers must be familiar with the various types of teaching and be shown how supervised study can be used in each type of teaching, (2) proper concepts of the goals of instruction and the place of study in school procedure must be developed in the teachers, (3) the teacher must understand the common difficulties of the pupils in study and how to overcome them, (4) teachers must realize the importance of effective habits, and be taught the technique of forming and modifying habits, (5) it is necessary for teachers to adopt a scientific attitude towards supervised study and all educational problems.

Under the study-recite plan each period is divided into a study period and a recitation period. This method can be made to work, but frequently fails because of distraction resulting from the change of study to recitation, monotony, inability to study in the classroom, and the feeling of being watched while at work.

The 60-minute period is rapidly gaining favor as regards the length of the period. In practice the special study-hour becomes a period in which work is made up. It helps backward pupils, but the brighter pupils look upon it as an undeserved detention. The subjects should be organized into units which embody principles to be understood. The teacher is to be free to intermingle study with recitation as the need arises.

All the teachers must adopt a uniform policy regarding home work. Home work should be voluntary. It is extra work to which a pupil is inspired by the interest developed

in class.

For effective supervised study, there must be reference books, supplementary texts, dictionaries, etc., in the classroom. There must be a general study hall with a teacherlibrarian.

"No technique of teaching has yet been devised which is so flexible and so adaptable to the proper instruction of individuals in groups as supervised study. The weaknesses that have developed in practice are not inherent but are due to errors of administration and application."

9. Preparation of Term Papers in History for Teachers [Courtesy of Charles M. Gill, School of Education, New York University.]

I. 1. Select your topic in the field of United States history that has the appeal of interest to you.

2. If the topic is general, analyze it and limit it to a phase which can be investigated in the time at your disposal and can be treated adequately in a paper.

3. Select preferably a topic which has been given limited attention in the course.

4. Have your subject approved by the instructor.

II. Prepare your bibliography including all the references that you locate which bear on your subject.

1. Your search should take you into all classes of historical material, general histories, period histories, monographs, theses, sources, special articles, biographies, etc., although you may not use all in the preparation of the paper.