operation, from what we do if we impose tasks as a mere duty. In each case you get a different state of mind, a different attitude.

38. The Psychological Effect of Resistance [THORNDIKE, E. L., Educational Psychology, Vol. I, p. 51. New York, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1913.]

The sight of another human being going for the object [of one's attention] or busied with it strengthens the tendencies toward possession. To resistance the response is pulling and twisting the object and pushing away whoever or whatever is in touch with it. Failure to get nearer, when one has moved toward such an object of attention, and failure to grasp it when one reaches for it, provoke annoyance, more vigorous responses of the same sort as before and the neural action which produces an emotion which is the primitive form of desire.

39. The Law of Effect in Social Education

[VOELKER, Paul F., The Function of Ideals in Social Education, pp. 39-40. New York, Teachers College, 1921.]

The best way to build an inhibitive habit in any individual against an anti-social practice, is to associate the practice with dissatisfaction or annoyance. One such annoyance may be enough to form a permanent inhibition. The burnt child dreads the fire. The burning was an annoyance. The boy who is caught in the act of stealing or cheating and who finds social pressure and disapproval against such practice, may be permanently cured the moment he feels the sense of shame.

The counterpart of the law of annoyance is the law of satisfaction. . . . Dewey says that "inhibition is not sufficient; instincts and impulses must be concentrated upon positive ends." When a boy has done a good deed, when he has rendered a social service, when he has shown himself trustworthy, his right action should be accompanied by satisfaction. This satisfaction may be the result of an inner "squaring" of his action with his accepted standards. Or it may be the result of the approval of his superiors and of his equals of his right action. Too much cannot be made of this. Right action should be accompanied by feelings of satisfaction. If an individual has stood up against a crowd in doing what he thought to be right, he should be commended for his courage by those whose approval he craves. The consequences of his right action should also bring him a

feeling of permanent satisfaction. Only thus can the tendency to do right be strengthened and made permanent.

40. Rewards and Punishment

[MÜNSTERBERG, Hugo, Psychology-General and Applied, p. 386. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1916.]

Much less attention has been given to those influences which improve the work not by removing fatigue, but by stimulating the effort. Especially the psychology of punishment and reward and of the whole disciplinary effect of authority, has not been made sufficiently accessible to the exact methods of the laboratory. We know that the efficiency can be whipped up by the fear of punishment or by the hope of reward, that the pressure of an examination or of a competition can stimulate energies which are inactive under normal conditions and can produce inhibitions of counter-impulses and of fatigue feelings to an extraordinary degree. No school can be without such helpful influences of discipline, but their value after all lies not in the unusual effect which may be produced in a particular case through a punishment or an appeal. The chief psychological effect which an atmosphere of authority and serious discipline will produce is the training in the habit of continuous effort. The discipline must not lack elements of cheerfulness or discouragement will set in. But this cheerfulness must not interrupt the steadiness of the authoritative demand for serious effort. If a real habit of thoroughness and seriousness is to be formed in the interest of efficient work, there must be no exceptions and intermissions. Looseness of work and an undisciplined go-asyou-please method in occasional periods are not recreations from effort, but injurious disturbances of good intellectual habits.

41. Reward and Punishment

It is better to select good responses and connect them with appropriate stimulus patterns than to eradicate wrong responses by pain or deprivation. An animal may learn rapidly when pain is inflicted, but there is always a strong tendency for it to avoid making any reaction. Pain may inhibit the tendency to make either the desirable or the wrong reaction. This is especially true if the punishment is severe. Owing to many complications and complexities

in the educative process, the finding of the best incentives and deterrents, and the proper use of these in any given situation is an intricate problem for experimenters in both psychology and education.

42. Punishment

Teachers and parents seek to prevent wrongdoing by the child by resorting to a variety of means. At all times, attention should be directed to the child's weak traits and desires, and to improving of them, rather than to the offense or its results. Punishment should be inflicted only for the benefit of the child, not for the relief of anger and rage of the parent and teacher. In administering punishment care should be taken to avoid the development of prejudices, antagonisms, fears, etc., which are often worse than the tendencies we are trying to change. Punishment should not be administered without due regard to the child's mental development, responsibility, motive, and individual peculiarities.

43. Self-Activity as Self-Control, Self-Restraint, and Self-Repression

[THORNDIKE, E. L., Principles of Teaching, p. 40. New York, A. G. Seiler, 1916.]

Finally, activity may as well result in the inhibition as in the production of ideas and feelings and movements. A fifth grade schoolroom in which children sit quietly reading or move about in a business-like way may represent more real activity than a room in which the children are waving their hands, incessantly making comments and asking questions. The first room may, it is true, represent mere repression and absence of interest and work; but it may represent interest, thought, and work plus the inhibition of aimless expressions thereof. It must not be forgotten that not to think the foolish, irrelevant thought is the essential of reasoning; that not to follow the wrong impulse is the essential of character; that not to make the aimless and crude movement is the essential of skill. Success is in great measure not making failures. What a man does depends upon what impulses are neglected or overcome. We are what we are by reason of what we are not,-what we do not permit ourselves to become. Activity is inhibitory as well as impulsive.

44. Self-Activity

[PARKER, S. C., General Methods of Teaching in Elementary Schools. pp. 161-162, Boston, Ginn & Co., 1919.]

The first fact referred to is that a pupil learns through his own responses, reactions, or behavior. Thus he learns to swim through trying to swim; he learns to like simple rhythmic poetry through the rhythmic feelings which it sets up in him and the rhythmic enunciation it induces in him; he learns to exercise self-control through "holding himself in," time and again; he learns to exercise careful judgment by time and again taking the attitude of "Let me see." . . . Only by making these responses himself can the pupil acquire skill in swimming, rhythmic enjoyment of poetry, and habits of exercising self-control and careful judgment. . . . This general fact that the pupil is educated through his own responses, or reactions, or behavior is sometimes called the doctrine of self-activity. . . . Often a child learns much more from other pupils than he does from the teacher, because they call forth more responses from him. . . . Often if he is very bright and the teacher is quite slow, a pupil learns more through surreptitious reading of books or through general mind-wandering than he does through the responses which the teacher stimulates him to make. . . . Slow children may be merely passive or scared observers of rapid-fire teachers.

45. Does the Child Learn by Going from the Simple to the

Complex?

[JAMES, William, Principles of Psychology, Vol. I, Chap. xiii. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1890.]

Apparently evidence shows, as Koffka maintains, that psychogenesis begins with wholes and with integration. In child psychology, however, the theory still survives that its mental processes begin with a chaos of elements, the child's "big, blooming, buzzing confusion", as James calls it, instead of beginning with nicely separated elements.

That confusion is the baby's universe; and the universe of all of us is still to a great extent such a confusion, potentially resolvable, and demanding to be resolved, but not yet actually resolved into parts. . . .

Experience, from the very first, presents us with concreted ob jects, vaguely continuous with the rest of the world which en

velops them in space and time, and potentially divisible into inward elements and parts. These objects we break asunder and reunite (pp. 487-488).

46. Parker on "Simple to Complex Theory"

[PARKER, S. C., History of Modern Elementary Education, pp. 372–373. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1912.]

Analysis by the learner is prominent in ordinary learning. As a rule, in the ordinary process of learning, the individual things with which we become acquainted are complex wholes; we recognize, identify, and remember them without completely analyzing them, and may never analyze them unless some practical necessity requires it. . . . In mastering any new situation, or material. . . the following process takes place: The mind begins by apprehending the situation as a vague, unanalyzed whole; proceeds by comparison or selective attention to break this whole up into its parts (as far as necessary for the practical purpose of the moment); and then reconstructs (synthesizes) these parts into an organized whole in which the relation of the parts is more or less clearly perceived. Hence the natural method of learning involves an initial analysis by the learner (not by the teacher) followed by a synthesis by the learner; that is, it is analytic-synthetic.

47. Learning by Analyzing Complex Wholes

[PARKER, S. C., General Methods of Teaching in the Elementary Schools, pp. 149-151. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1919.]

According to James, a person learns ordinarily by meeting complex situations and analyzing these situations himself, not by being fed the elements of these situations by some one else who has dug them out. In describing the frame of mind of a child in a very new situation, James characterized it as "a big, blooming, buzzing confusion." Examples of such situations from adult life are the following: coming out of a depot in a strange city; being plunged into the water for one's first swimming lesson; trying to draw an unfamiliar object if you have little skill in drawing; trying to solve a difficult original exercise in geometry. The learner clears up such a buzzing confusion by picking out now this phase and now that phase for separate attention. For example, in coming out of the depot you may look the people over and pick out a policeman to ques