brought to bear in working over the treacherous material of mythology, we might prove with no less verisimilitude than he has shown the primacy of the libido that in the beginning was anger, and that not Anaxagoras' love or the strife of Heraclitus was the fons et origo of all things, that the Ichtrieb is basal, and that the fondest and most comprehensive of all motives is that to excel others, not merely to survive, but to win a larger place in the sun, and that there is some connection between the Darwinian psychogenesis and Max Stirner and Nietzsche, which Adler has best evaluated.

Anger has also its dreams and reveries. When wronged the imagination riots in the fancied humiliation and even tortures of an enemy. An object of hate may be put through almost every conceivable series of degradation, ridicule, exposure and disgrace. He is seen by others for what our hate deems him to be. All disguises stripped off. Children sometimes fancy a hated object of anger flogged until he is raw, abandoned by all his friends, an outcast, homeless, alone, in the dark, starving, exposed to wild animals, and far more often more prosaic fancies conceive him as whipped by a parent or stronger friend, or by the victim himself later. Very clever strategies are thought out in detail by which the weaker gets even with or vanquishes the stronger, and one who suffers a rankling sense of injustice can hardly help day-dreaming of some form of come-uppance for his foe, although it takes years to do it. In these reveries the injurer in the end almost always gives up and sues for mercy at the feet of his quondam victim. So weird and dramatic are these scenes often that to some minds we must call anger and hate the chief springs of the imagination. A pubescent girl who was deeply offended went off by herself and held an imaginary funeral of her enemy, hearing in fancy the disparaging remarks of the bystanders, and when it was all over and the reaction came, she made up with the object of her passion by being unusually sweet to her and even became solicitous about her health as fearing that her reverie might come true. We all too remember Tolstoi's reminiscences when, having been flogged by his tutor, he slunk off to the attic, weeping and broken-hearted, and finally after a long brooding resolved to run away and become a soldier, and this he did in fancy, becoming corporal, lieutenant, captain, colonel. Finally came a great battle where he led a desperate charge that was crowned with victory, and when all was over and he stood tottering, leaning on his sword, bloody and with many a wound, and the

great Czar of all the Russians approached, saluted him as savior of his fatherland and told him to ask whatever he wanted and it was his, he replied magnanimously that he had only done his duty and wanted no reward. All he asked was that his tutor might be brought up and his head cut off. Then the scene changed to other situations, each very different, florid with details, but motivated by ending in the discomfiture of the tutor. In the ebb or ambivalent reaction of this passion he and the tutor got on better. .

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Of what educational importance is the emotional element? 2. To what extent may an emotion serve as an incentive or motivation for work? Is it the most desirable sort of incentive? 3. What is the James-Lange theory of emotions? Apply the theory to the enjoyment we get from literature, music and art.

4. What is the relation of emotion and feeling to moral education? If we are to "teach" that war is a "crime" in the schools in a way that will be successful in promoting world peace, what must be done in addition to imparting "knowledge"?

5. What is the nature of emotional enthusiasm? What is its effect upon speed of learning, accuracy in thinking, etc?

6. How would you treat a child who is overemotional, easily angered, easily offended, etc? At what age should emotional habits, keeping one's temper, resisting stimuli to fear, grief, anger, etc., be established? How may this be done? How would you deal with children whose emotionality is so pronounced as to interfere with their school work?

7. Why did the teacher buy the encyclopedia? Answer from the following case: I did not care to invest $25.00 in the encyclopedia as I was just completing my two years of Normal College work, but when the book representative told me that I could use it to solve all the teaching problems that I must face next year and all the cases of discipline, I bought a set.

8. By what means may a wholesome class spirit be built up! 9. From what sources in nature do you receive the greatest æsthetic enjoyment? in art? What traits in conduct would you describe as beautiful? What is a "beautiful life"?

10. How may pride in an orderly and attractive room be developed?

11. Books belonging to the school are badly treated. How may children be taught to care for their books?

12. What would be a wise thing to say to a child if you were trying to cure his fear of the dark? his fear of lightning?

13. What is the value of religious ceremonies, such as kneeling,

bending the head and preserving silence in church, in cultivating religious emotions?

14. Explain by laws the fact: That religion based on fear commonly produces only negative morality—not the presence of good

acts.

15. How would you explain the efficiency of religious "revivals"? 16. In what way may an appreciation of the comic, the ludicrous and the "funny" serve a useful purpose in life?

17. The following quotations contain much of psychological value. Explain fully in each instance.

(a) "We are a part of all we have met."

(b) "Are not the mountains, waves, and skies a part of me and of my soul, and I of them?”

18. What risk is run by the parent or teacher who in educating children relies upon suggestion and imitation rather than argument and principles?

19. Discuss the psychology of suggestibility; of crowds; of mobs; of alcoholism; of war; of prestige; of custom; of fashion; of imitation; and of public opinion.

20. Why do political parties spend money in printing such apparently unconvincing stuff as "Vote under the Eagle," or "Vote the straight Democratic ticket"; or "Vote for the Socialist and a full dinner pail"; or "Vote for the Constitution"?

21. Of what importance are a person's early likes and dislikes! 22. Report any difference you have noted in the work of children that was due to their attitude.

REFERENCES

ANGELL, J. R., Introduction to Psychology (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1918), Chaps. xi, xii.

Psychology (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1908), Chaps. xiii, xiv, xviii, xix.

BOLTON, F. E., Principles of Education (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910), Chap. xxv.

-, Everyday Psychology for Teachers (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923), Chap. x.

BURT, Cyril, The Young Delinquent (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1925), Chaps. ix, x, xii.

CAMERON, E. H., Psychology and the Schools (New York, Century Co., 1921), Chap. x.

CANNON, W. B., Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1915).

COLVIN, S. S., and BAGLEY, W. C., Human Behavior (New York, Macmillan Co., 1913), Chaps. v, vi.

FREEMAN, Frank N., How Children Learn (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1917), Chap. vi.

1

GATES, A. I., Psychology for Students of Education (New York, Macmillan Co., 1924), Chap. viii.

MCDOUGALL, William, Outline of Psychology (New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1923), Chaps. xi, xii.

NORSWORTHY, Naomi, and WHITLEY, Mary T., Psychology of Childhood (New York, Macmillan Co., 1923), Chap. iv.

PILLSBURY, W. B., Essentials of Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1920), Chaps. xi, xii.

SEASHORE, C. E., Introduction to Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1923), Chap. xxi.

THORNDIKE, E. L., Educational Psychology (New York, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1921), Vol. I, Chap. ix.

-, Principles of Teaching (New York, A. G. Seiler, 1916), Chap. xii.

TITCHENER, E. B., Textbook of Psychology (New York, Macmillan Co., 1916), pp. 225-264; 471-503.

WARREN, H. C., Elements of Psychology (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1922), Chap. ix.

WATSON, J. B., Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Co., 1924), Chap. vi.

WOODWORTH, R. S., Psychology (New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1921), Chaps. viii, ix.

CHAPTER IX

THE LEARNING PROCESS

The learning process constitutes the major field of interest in the field of educational psychology. The readings for discussion have been drawn principally from the results of experimental psychology, experimental education, and tests and measurements. From the readings selected there may be derived several fundamental principles which, if applied in classroom situations, should produce greater efficiency.

The psychology of learning the school subjects is a field that has received but a small amount of attention in comparison with its importance. Some very important investigations have been made in reading, handwriting, spelling and arithmetic. The other subjects have been hardly touched. Until these subjects are thoroughly studied, the teacher is obliged to depend largely upon the results obtained from learning the telegraphic code, typewriting, ball tossing, running mazes, tracing star outlines, and making substitutions. Such procedure is highly unsatisfactory.

The readings aim to give the student a basis or psychological foundation for method. Purpose, mind-set, feeling of satisfyingness (37,38), zeal and "will" to learn (36) are known to facilitate learning in accordance with the law of effect. Distributed repetition (28), mastering one thing at a time (20), and practicing in the correct way (23) generally enable the individual to learn more economically.

The psychological value of both the recitation and examination have been questioned. The readings bearing on these topics are designed to help the teacher evaluate the criticisms (57,58,59).