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procedure, if rigidly adhered to, would be impracticable. Self-control is primarily emotional control. Where there is lack of self-control on the part of the child, assistance may be given him by eliminating the fundamental causes of such lack of control.

27. Factors in Self-Control

[SECHRIST, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, pp. 256-257. Copyright, 1920, by the Macmillan Co. Reprinted by permission.]

.. The self-regarding emotions. . . undermine self-control. Anger, fear, nervous sensitiveness, aggressive egotism, etc., disturb mental balance by exaggerating the importance of the self. The imagination is favorable to the character up to a certain point, only so long as it is unselfish. Perversion takes place when the imagination turns inward from proper objects outside the self and becomes self-indulgent and by its figments falsifies reality. Growth in self-control as well as in mental integrity is indicated in decreasing self-love, and a lessened self-consciousness, "the two fountainheads of maladaptation." When children develop normally they gradually outgrow their self-regarding tendencies. . . . To train for moral integrity, the teacher needs to keep in mind only one simple rule: Think of other persons and things, never of the self and its fortunes and misfortunes.

28. Sentiments and Moral Judgments

[MCDOUGALL, William, Introduction to Social Psychology, pp. 224–226. Boston, John W. Luce & Co., 1923.]

It is notorious that sentiments determine our moral judgments. A man's concrete sentiments are apt to lead him to judgments that are valid only for himself, that have little objective or supra-individual validity; or, as is commonly said, they pervert his judgment. . . . No man could acquire by means of his own unaided reflections and unguided emotions any considerable array of moral sentiments; still less could he acquire in that way any consistent and lofty system of them. In the first place, the intellectual process of discriminating and naming the abstract qualities of character and conduct is quite beyond the unaided power of the individual; in this process he finds indispensable aid in the language that he absorbs from his fellows. But he is helped not by language only; every civilized society

has more or less highly developed moral tradition, consisting of a system of traditional abstract sentiments.

. . . If an individual is to acquire abstract moral sentiments, he must not grow up in a society that is completely bound by the laws of rigid and uniform custom.

29. Principles Governing and Maintaining Morale [COLVIN, S. S., Introduction to High School Teaching, pp. 81-82. Copyright, 1915, by the Macmillan Co. Reprinted by permission.]

There are a few principles that every teacher who wishes to be well liked by his pupils should keep in mind. Some of these are as follows:

Cultivate a genuine sympathy with your pupils, don't try to assume it. In this you cannot successfully make believe. If you have no real interest in your pupils, they will soon detect the fact. You cannot fool them, even if you fool yourself. To gain this sympathy you must strive to understand the nature of boys and girls, if you have forgotten yourself what that nature is. You must try to find out how their minds work; what they think and feel; what their hopes and ambitions are..

Do not let your sympathy run away with you. If a pupil has been delinquent in his work or in his conduct, hold him accountable. The kind teacher is looked up to; the "easy teacher" is generally despised. . . .

Do not attempt to gain favor by being undignified. You cannot be on the same level with your pupils, neither do they wish you to be. You may be their adviser and their model, you cannot be their chum.

30. Teaching Suggestions: Character Development

NEUMANN, Henry, "The Child's Moral Equipment and Development," pp. 88-91, in The Child: His Nature and His Needs. Valparaiso, The Children's Foundation, 1924.]

All sorts of conditions play their part in shaping his [the child's] character. Fortunately, these influences are more or less capable of control and wise direction. One such influence we may designate by the general term "knowledge." Sometimes children go wrong because the better way is unknown to them. Or even when they do know, they forget. But in recent years, the psychologists have had to remind us that it is also necessary to have the right disposition. Unless a child really wants to become the splendid type of man or woman we hope,

all our holding up of heroes to admire will be of little avail. If the child does not genuinely care for the better things, it is because there are other wants which are stronger. Which desires, therefore, are more likely to be carried out? Plainly the right of way will be taken by those desires which the child is most in the habit of expressing. Hence neither feeling alone nor knowledge, but habit and practice have much to do with moral behavior.

Our problem, therefore, is to be worked out in general along these three lines: (1) Any experiences at all which arouse distaste for what is vile and love for what is admirable, make it likely that the child will choose more wisely among the courses of conduct open to him. (2) Any knowledge which increases his understanding of human life offers a help to a sound choice. (3) Any training in persistent, resolute, efficient carrying out of sensible purposes increases the likelihood that the child's life as a whole will be effectively self-directed.

31. How to Relieve Tense Situations

[THORNDIKE, E. L., Principles of Teaching, p. 94. New York, A. G. Seiler, 1916.]

Some first-rate thinkers are puzzled and discouraged by rapid questions or drills. Some children think and feel so intensely that they need the bit of calmness, humor and relaxation rather than the spur of excitement or rebuke. Some children cannot think of more than one thing at a time and are lost in a lesson if the teacher introduces side issues or comparative references which the broader-minded child follows easily.

32. Mental Attitudes and the School

[BURNHAM, William H., The Normal Mind, p. 293. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1924.]

Two classes of results are produced by education—what we may call the primary results and the secondary results. The primary results consist of what is actually learned in the different subjects and the skill acquired. The secondary results consist of mental attitudes and interests, what we may call mental development, and sometimes, unfortunately, arrest of development. For hygiene, and even for pedagogy, the secondary results are usually more important than the primary. The hygienist calls the secondary results attitudes, the teacher calls them interests, and the more unusual and abnormal secondary

results are called by the psychologist arrests, perversions, bad mental habits, or what not.

Children carry away very little book knowledge from the schools. Every teacher knows this. But the attitudes and habits carried from the school are of vital importance, not only for efficiency but for health. The way the school determines attitudes is not merely by the school environment, the habits and manners of the teachers, but also by the whole course of study, and especially by the tasks set and the directions given to the children. A whole new pedagogy of the first importance is here involved. We have been so busy hitherto in teaching, in giving information, in imparting knowledge, that we have failed to see the significance of these deeper and more fundamental things that result from learning, these results of education that are really permanent, namely, these interests and attitudes.

33. Importance and Variety of Mental Attitudes [BURNHAM, William H., The Normal Mind, pp. 284-287. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1924.]

Our mental life is largely made up of a kaleidoscopic variety of attitudes. We are accustomed to think of sensations and ideas when we speak of the mental life; but deeper than the life of sensation and of intellect is the life of feeling, and what we call for lack of a better word these attitudes. They are frequently referred to as the adjustment of the mind, or the set of the mind, or the like. . . . It is seen that they are specially important for the functioning of such mental processes as memory, association, and the like, and thus are vitally significant in determining thought and action. . . . Every individual has, of course, his own peculiar attitudes as determined by his experience and training as well as his original disposition. These are very deep-seated and fundamental things; and they, in turn, determine one's general behavior and even, to a large extent, one's ideals and aims. Thus these attitudes are formed by our reactions. They are modified by our reactions. Healthful attitudes on the one hand, abnormal and injurious attitudes on the other, are developed by our behavior in different situations.

The best way to develop a permanent attitude or a permanent interest is to do something. By attending to things, by doing things, interests and attitudes are inevitably developed; and among the strongest and most wholesome interests are those in our own work and our various tasks. And thus an occupation

represents a vital complex of associations and attitudes. It comes to be one of the most important things in an individual's character. It is almost a part of one's personality. Or, more accurately, it has been a great factor in integrating one's personality. Thus these attitudes are not merely a means, but an end. The great aim of education and of mental hygiene is the development of healthful attitudes and their integration in character...

These attitudes are of various degrees of concreteness. They vary from our general attitudes toward our work, our families, our occupations, and toward life in general, to the special concrete attitudes connected with special concrete situations.

34. Ideals and Attitudes as Generalizations of
Specific Habits

[BAGLEY, W. C., Educational Values, pp. 45ff. Copyright, 1911, by the Macmillan Co. Reprinted by permission.]

Prejudices and attitudes may grow out of specific habits, as when the habits of Sunday observance, established in early childhood, become more or less explicitly formulated as ideals and gradually come to express themselves as prejudices which make the lack of observance a matter of discomfort and annoyance.

From the specific habit of accuracy developed by mathematics, one comes gradually to idealize accuracy as a method of procedure that will bring desirable results in other fields.

35. Do Emotions Induce New Forms of Behavior? [COLVIN, S. S. and BAGLEY, W. C., Human Behavior, pp. 95-96; 100. Copyright, 1913, by the Macmillan Co. Reprinted by permission.]

The great value of the emotional experience lies in the fact that through the turmoil it causes, there are made possible new modes of behavior and new trains of ideas, resulting in new activities. It often takes nothing short of a mental cataclysm or "shock" to wipe out old and harmful habits of conduct and to set up new and useful actions. During the period when the will seems paralyzed, when thoughts are confused and action vacillating and uncertain, the old and harmful habits that have dulled the mind and mechanized behavior are at least temporarily obliterated, and the opportunity is thus offered for a new start and the gradual formation of a new set of habits and new attitudes of the mind. Emotion may then be looked upon from the

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