face him with a much larger number of situations that more nearly touch his daily life activities, it might be possible to extend the list. It is realized that we are working here with very young members of the human species. A good deal of organization and development takes place after two hundred days. Some very complex situations have yet to be faced, such as masturbation (and in boys especially, the first masturbation after puberty); the first menstruation period in girls; complex situations connected with family life, such as quarrels between the parents, corporal punishment, death of loved ones, all of which have to be met with for a first time. We know from later observation that these do become hitched up to emotional reactions; whether they are original or transferred does not appear from our studies. It would be especially desirable to study the reaction states we now designate by the names of shame and shyness, embarrassment, in this connection. We are of the opinion that most of the asserted emotions are of the consolidated type (that is, emotion plus instinct, plus habit) or emotional attitudes.

Attention is called here to the limitations of the genetic method. As long as we can keep the baby under constant observation, a great deal of simplification can be obtained in the study of the emotions, but the human infant is a part of a social group and must sooner or later be returned to it. Things happen so fast then that a separate tabulation of events cannot be made. Under ordinary conditions, the emotions take care of themselves in a normal child, that is, society, including of course the parents and the family group, furnishes its own corrective for failure to react emotionally, for wrong emotional reaction and for over or under reactions. At times, however, due either to defective environment or to defective heredity, the emotions may go wrong. The genetic method is not of service. The emotional life of the individual must then be studied by the psychopathologist. Again, in business and professional life (especially in the Army and Navy), more and more emphasis is being placed upon what may be called emotional temperament. It is thus evident that the applied psychologist must have some means of making studies of emotional activity in adults. Finally, the scientific psychologist, for methodological and purely technical reasons, devises methods for the study of emotions in the hope that they will yield scientific results, or that his methods may prove of such value that they can be employed by the psychopathologist, by the criminologist and by the applied psychologist.

15. Bodily Expression in Emotion

[DARWIN, Charles, The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, p. 307. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1899.]

Men, during numberless generations, have endeavored to escape from their enemies or danger by head-long flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to be hurried, the chest to heave, and the nostrils to be dilated. As these exertions often have to be prolonged to the last extremity, the final result will have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling of all the muscles, or their complete relaxation. And now, whenever the emotion of fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead to any exertion, the same results tend to reappear. through the force of inheritance and association.

16. Emotion, the Result of Inhibited Instinctive Action [CRILE, G. W., The Origin and Nature of the Emotions, pp. 76, 138, 139. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Co., 1915.]

When our progenitors came in contact with any exciting element in their environment, action ensued then and there. There was much action-little restraint or emotion. Civilized man is really in auto-captivity. He is subjected to innumerable stimulations, but custom and convention frequently prevent physical action. When these stimulations are sufficiently strong but no action ensues, the reaction constitutes an emotion. A phylogenetic fight is anger; a phylogenetic flight is fear; a phylogenetic copulation is sexual love; and so one finds in this conception an underlying principle which may be the key to an understanding of the emotions and of certain diseases. . . . So strong is the influence of phylogenetic experience that though an enemy to-day may not be met by actual physical attack, yet the decks are cleared for action, as it were, and the weapons made ready, the body as a result being shaken and exhausted. The type of emotion is plainly declared by the activation of the muscles which would be used if appropriate physical action were consummated. In anger the teeth are set, the fists are clenched, the posture is rigid; in fear the muscles collapse, the joints tremble, and the running mechanism is activated for flight. . . . The emotions, then, are the preparations for phylogenetic activities. If the activities are consummated, the fuel (glycogen) and the activating secretions from the thyroid, the adrenals, and the

hypophysis are consumed. In the activation without action, these products must be eliminated as waste products, and so a heavy strain is put upon the organs of elimination. It is obvious that the body under emotion might be clarified by active muscular exercise, but the subject of the emotions is so strongly integrated thereby that it is difficult for him to engage in diverting, clarifying exertion. The person in anger does not want to be saved from the ill effects of his own emotion; he wants only to fight; the person in fear wants only to escape; the person under sexual excitement wants only possession.

Laboratory experiments show that in an animal driven strongly by emotion the following changes may be seen: (1) a mobilization of the energy-giving compound in the brain-cells, evidenced by a primary increase of the Nissl substance and a later disappearance of this substance and the deterioration of the cells; (2) increased output of adrenalin, of thyroid secretion, of glycogen, and an increase of the power of oxidation in the muscles; (3) accelerated circulation and respiration with increased body temperature; (4) altered metabolism. All these are adaptations to increase the motor efficiency of the mechanism. In addition, we find an inhibition of the functions of every organ and tissue that consumes energy, but does not contribute directly to motor efficiency. The mouth becomes dry; the gastric and pancreatic secretions are lessened or are completely inhibited; peristaltic action stops. The obvious purpose of all these activations and inhibitions is to mass every atom of energy upon the muscles that are conducting the defense or attack.

17. Emotions and Education

[CANNON, W. B., Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage, pp. 215-216; 278–280. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1915.]

The close relation between emotion and muscular action has long been recognized. Emotion "moves" us,-hence the word itself. It developed in intensity, it impels toward vigorous movement. Every vigorous movement of the body. . . involves also the less noticeable coöperation of the viscera, especially of the circulatory and respiratory. The extra demand made upon the muscles that move the frame involves a heightened action of the nutrient organs which supply to the muscles the material for their energy. The researches here reported have revealed a number of unsuspected ways in which muscular action is made more efficient because of emotional disturbances of the viscera

Every one of the visceral changes that have been noted-the cessation of processes in the alimentary canal (thus freeing the energy supply for other parts); the shifting of blood from the abdominal organs, whose activities are deferable, to the organs immediately essential to muscular exertion (the lungs, the heart, the central nervous system); the increased vigor of contraction of the heart; the quick abolition of the effects of muscular fatigue; the mobilizing of energy-giving sugar in the circulation -every one of these visceral changes is directly serviceable in making the organism here effective in the violent display of energy which fear or rage or pain may involve. . . .

Darwin reports the case of a young man who on hearing that a fortune had just been left him, became pale, then exhilarated, and after various expressions of joyous feeling vomited the half-digested content of his stomach. Müller has described. the case of a young woman whose lover had broken the engagement of marriage. She wept in bitter sorrow for several days, and during that time vomited whatever food she took.

. . . In these cases, of intense joy, and intense sorrow, the influence of the cranial division of the autonomic nervous system has been overcome, digestion has ceased, and the stagnant gastric contents by reflexes in striated muscles have been violently discharged. The extent to which under such circumstances other effects of sympathetic impulses may be manifested, has not, so far as I know, been ascertained.

From the evidence just given it appears that any high degree of excitement in the central nervous system, whether felt as anger, terror, pain, anxiety, joy, grief, or deep disgust, is likely to break over the threshold of the sympathetic division and disturb the functions of all the organs which that division innervates. It may be that there is advantage in the readiness with which these widely different emotional conditions can express themselves in this one division, for, as has been shown, occasions may arise when these milder emotions are suddenly transmuted into the naturally intense types [as fright and fury] which normally activate this division; and if the less intense can also influence it, the physiological aspect of the transmutation is already partially accomplished.

If various strong emotions can thus be expressed in the diffused activities of a single division of the autonomic-the division which accelerates the heart, inhibits the movements of the stomach and intestines, contracts the blood-vessels, erects the hairs, liberates sugar, and discharges adrenalin-it would appear

that the bodily conditions which have been assumed, by some psychologists to distinguish emotions from one another must be sought for elsewhere than in the viscera. We do not "feel sorry because we cry," as James contended, but we cry when we are sorry or overjoyed or violently angry or full of tender affection-when any one of the diverse emotional states is present-there are nervous discharges by sympathetic channels to various viscera, including the lachrymal glands. In terror and rage and intense elation, for example, the responses in the viscera seem too uniform to offer a satisfactory means of distinguishing states which, in man at least, are very different in subjective quality. For this reason I am inclined to urge that the visceral changes merely contribute to an emotional complex more or less indefinite, but still pertinent, feelings of disturbance in organs of which we are not usually conscious.

18. Glandular Responses during Emotions

It has been said that the Chinese attempt to determine an individual's guilt by giving the accused rice flour to eat. If he can masticate it sufficiently to swallow, he is not guilty, but if the saliva does not flow freely, he is guilty. The ancient Chinese procedure was a recognition of the fact that there is a relationship between the salivary secretions and fear. Our glands are often affected during emotion; when one is in grief, tears are shed; when angry, there may be excessive perspiration; fear may inhibit salivary secretions; and anger may stop the gastric juice. The endocrine, or internal secretions are also affected by the emotions. The adrenals, two little glands located near the kidneys, are especially affected by such emotions as anger. In the normal state of the organism, the adrenal secretion is slowly produced and taken up by the blood, but in anger it secretes rapidly. This hastens and strengthens the action of the heart. It causes the large veins to force the blood back to the heart, and by these two means the circulation is quickened. It also affects the liver, causing it to discharge large quantities of sugar into the blood. In this way, the muscles are given an unusual quantity of fuel, and consequently, are able to work with unusual energy. The adrenal secretions also serve as protection against fatigue. The