average for the 512 high-school Freshmen considered in the above tables. Fourthly, the average intelligence of our "D" group (95 points) is about equal to that of adults who had one year of high-school training and were tested 15 years out of school. The average intelligence of our "B" group is higher than the average intelligence of adults who had been graduated from the high school or who had been college freshmen and were tested 15 years later. With respect to the "E" pupils, investigations have thus far shown that not more than 30 per cent of them succeed in becoming high-school seniors. .

Judged by the goal that he sets for himself, he certainly has far-reaching desires.

34. The Unreliability of the Difference Between
Intelligence and Educational Ratings

[CHAPMAN, J. Crosby, "The Unreliability of the Difference between Intelligence and Educational Ratings," Psychological Bulletin, January, 1923, Vol. 20, pp. 89–90.]

With the entrance of "intelligence tests" and "school tests," it is a great temptation to measure "intelligence" and "school achievement," and then by the difference in standing to estimate the extent to which an individual is taking advantage of his school opportunity. The general idea is so attractive and the results, if true, so useful that psychologists and school men have been captivated by the simplicity of a definite figure which promised to give such valuable information with regard to the pupil and the school. Provided sufficiently accurate differential instruments are available, no one doubts that the procedure is most useful, but in the absence of such instruments, it is surprising to find the rigid manner in which the differences in intelligence level and school level, resulting from single tests of each, have been interpreted. . . . By a simple process of statistical analysis a formula has been derived to measure the extent to which our present instruments are adequate to measure this difference between mental and educational standing. Applying this formula to the usual run of mental and school tests it is immediately apparent that the so-called mental educational differential index possesses almost no reliability whatsoever.

35. Correlation Between Intelligence and Other Traits [TERMAN, L. M., The Intelligence of School Children, pp. 56-58. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1919.]

The traits listed below all correlated positively with intelligence and with one another.

36. Correlation Between Interests and Abilities [BRIDGES, J. W., "The Correlation between Interests and Abilities in College Courses," Psychological Bulletin, February, 1920, Vol. 17, pp. 69-70.]

Previous studies of this subject have been based upon subjective estimates of both interests and abilities; and correlations as high as .89 have been obtained. This is no doubt much higher than the actual correlation; for judgments of interest and of ability cannot be made independently of each other. A more valid result would be obtained, if objective measurements of ability were used. Such measurements seem to be afforded by col

lege grades, especially when the proportions of the various grades assigned conform approximately to the normal distribution.

There are, however, many obvious objections to the use of college grades as measures of ability. Among others are: (1) College grade is also in part dependent upon interest. The effect of this would be to increase the correlation. (2) College grades are not sufficiently discriminative; and consequently many students get the same grade in all their courses when their actual abilities are perhaps not so even. The effect of this would be to decrease the correlation. It is difficult to say how far these two factors counteract each other.

37. The Problem of the Feeble-Minded in Its Educational and Social Bearings

[WALLIN, J. E. Wallace, Froblems of Subnormality, pp. 275-277, 323333, 337-338. Copyright, 1917, by World Book Co., Yonkers-onHudson, New York.]

Feeble-mindedness is a permanent condition of mental feebleness, and not an active disease process or a remediable malady. Consequently the problem of feeble-mindedness is fundamentally educational and social. And since the schools are but the instrument of society, constituted to do its bidding, the interests of the schools and of society in the feeble-minded are identical.

The first is the obligation of society to identify and register as early as possible all feeble-minded children born into the state. Society has not yet assumed this duty in a satisfactory manner, largely because of the failure of society to appreciate the social menace of the feeble-minded class.

In order to achieve this result it is necessary to establish clinics or clearing houses where the feeble-minded may be diagnosed and registered. These clinics must be manned by persons who are trained and experienced experts in the subject of feeble-mindedness. While the clinics should provide for the physical and hereditary examinations of the suspected cases, and of their social environment, their central function must be the direct testing of mentality, particularly the stage of development of the intelligence, for there is no direct examination, other than psychological, of feeble-mindedness.

The third obligation of society is the provision of continuous oversight and supervision over the feeble-minded. The unfortunate necessity for continuous aftercare arises from that fact that, although we can develop sufficient skill in the higher

grades of the feeble-minded to enable them to earn their own livelihood under favorable conditions, we are less successful in the attempts to endow them with that degree of prudence and foresight-that indispensable common sense-which will enable them wisely to take care of their own interests, to protect themselves from the more intelligent and vicious designers and impostors who prey upon the feeble-minded and use them as their cat's paws to do their bidding, and to resist the alluring temptations toward criminalistic careers and toward the assumption of marital obligations for which they are not fitted, either from the standpoint of social or industrial competency or of capacity for health procreation.

38. Grade Expectancy of the Feeble-Minded

[TERMAN, L. M., The Intelligence of School Children, p. 129, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1919.]

Making allowance for minor changes of a few points in I. Q. we are able on this basis to make such predictions as the following:

The child who tests at 60 I. Q. will in all probability never go beyond the mental age of nine or ten years (sixty per cent of 16 years 9.6 years). Such a child will never be able to do good work above the third or fourth grade, although by the age of sixteen he is likely to be found in the fifth or sixth grade, promoted there because of age and size.

39. The Problem Child

[BLANCHARD, Phyllis and PAYNTER, Richard H. Jr., "The Problem Child." Mental Hygiene, Vol. 8, pp. 26-27; 29; 52-54; January, 1924.] (Adapted.)

Five hundred school children, who were considered problems at home or at school, have recently been studied in three of the child-guidance clinics conducted by The National Committee for Mental Hygiene as a part of the Commonwealth Program for the Prevention of Delinquency. A second, unselected group of 337 children (comprising all the children in two schools) were also given medical and psychological examinations and certain social facts about them were ascertained; this second group may therefore be used as a control group for the same set of findings in the group of problem children.

The examinations on the 500 problem children were requested

by parents, teachers, local physicians, social-service agencies, judges of juvenile courts, and the like.

The ages of the children ranged from four to sixteen years in both groups. There was a fairly equal division of the sexes in the control group, 58.8 per cent being boys and 44.2 per cent girls, but nearly two-thirds of the problem group-64.6 per cent were boys. Almost twice as many boys as girls were referred for study as problems.

In both groups, the ratio of white to colored children and children of American parentage to those with one or both parents foreign born was practically the same.

In considering the I. Q. distribution, we find that the number of children with I. Q.'s between 80 and 89 is practically the same in the problem and the control groups. Twenty-three and two-tenths per cent of the problem children and 24.1 per cent of those in the control group had an I. Q. between 80 and 89. There are relatively more than two and a half times as many children with an I. Q. below 80 in the problem group, and less than one-half as many with an I. Q. over 90. . .

Essential Facts Summarized.-Almost twice as many boys as girls were found in the problem group.

Relatively about five times as many of the problem group as of the control group were diagnosed as mentally defective.

Relatively about twice as many problem children had speech defects.

Approximately three times as many children with marked physical defects were found in the problem as in the control group. Also about three times as many in the problem group had personality difficulties.

Six times as many of the problem children showed conduct disorders.

There were relatively twice as many cases of endocrine disturbance in the problem group.

Relatively two and one-half times as many of the problem children as of the control group were graded above their intellectual level.

The fact that mental retardation and mental defect, speech defects, physical ills, personality difficulties, endocrine disturbance, and misgrading in school occurred with so much greater frequency in the problem than in the control group would suggest that they are important factors in maladjustment. An analysis of 250 problem cases with reference to causative factors substantiated this belief.