disagreeable : "Those who go must be well provided with wraps." This, however, is a somewhat modern refinement and not very pressing. Such expressions as "These that have turned the world upside down are come hither also," "those that look out of the windows be darkened," do not disturb a wholesome sense of euphony.

3. That sounds ill when separated from its verb or its antecedents and made a pause-word: "There are many persons that, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and that, if not strongly incited by selfinterest, are ready for the most part to think of the interest of their neighbors." Here who would make a better pause-word.

4. As the word that cannot be preceded by a preposition, whom or which is sometimes used, though restrictive, in order to avoid sending the preposition to the end of the clause: "That was a dignity to which he could not aspire," instead of " that he could not aspire to.”- A few words about this construction are needed here, because of the indiscriminate advice that is sometimes given, on the ground that, as some one has inconsistently expressed it, "a preposition is a poor word to end a sentence with." The fact is, much depends on the effect. A long preposition, or a preposition that may also be an adverb, sounds cumbrous at the end; e.g. "Such were the prejudices that he rose above," "this is the mark that I jumped beyond." On the other hand, the construction with which is more formal, less conversational; e.g. "This is the rule to which I adhere," in talk we say, "this is the rule I adhere to," "these are the principles to live by." The prepositions to, for, of, on, with, and by are sent freely to the end of their clause, and with good conversational effect. The following is perhaps an extreme example: "It seemed to be one of those facts of existence that she could not get used to, nor find anywhere in her brisk, fiery little body a grain of cool resignation for."— Here is the way Browning uses it in poetry:

"That was the bench they sat on,- there's the board
They took the meal at,- yonder garden-ground

They leaned across the gate of." 1

II. CLEARNESS.

5. The word who is used restrictively instead of that in order to make clear the gender of the antecedent, with such words as many, others, several, those. For example: "There are many millions in India who would be utterly unable to pay a fine of fifty rupees." If in this case the antecedent were clear, the restrictive form would be more appropriate, as,

1 BROWNING, The Ring and the Book, Book v, ll. 1256–1258.

"There are many millions of persons in India that,” etc. So when with these pronominal adjectives things are meant, we say not "all which," 'much which," but "all that,” “much that."

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21. While the relative connotes addition or restriction, it does not always give these implications with the proper emphasis or tenuity of stress; it is in this respect a somewhat unwieldy construction. For this reason it is important to have at command the various equivalents for the relative.

EQUIVALENTS FOR THE RELATIVE.- The following are the commonest equivalents for the relative, classified according to the object sought in the employment of them.

I. FOR AUGMENTATION OF STRESS.

1. Sometimes, instead of the additive relative, its equivalent, a demonstrative with a conjunction, will better bring out the importance of the statement; e.g. "Only a few presidents oppose fraternities to-day; who [better and these] are in most cases heads of universities, where the need of Greek letter societies is not so evident as in colleges generally."

2. The restrictive relative introducing a negative statement is weak; the statement may be much strengthened by using the word but as a relative, which changes the statement to affirmative: "It has no defects but such as can be remedied in succeeding volumes," is stronger than "It has no defects that cannot be remedied in succeeding volumes." "There is no moral rule but bends [= that does not bend] to circumstances."

II. FOR ATTENUATION OF STRESS.

3. The relative may be condensed by being combined, in the same word, with a preposition, or with its antecedent. Thus wherein, whereby, may be used for in which, by which: "Great virtues often save, and always illustrate the age and nation wherein they appear."

"Yet all experience is an arch wherethro'

Gleams that untravell'd world, whose margin fades

For ever and for ever when I move."

What, the so-called double relative, being really relative and antecedent in one, is a useful equivalent for that which, those which: "Let me repeat to you what I have often said, that what is worth doing at all is worth doing well."

4. The relative is often omitted to advantage, when it is the object of a verb (less often of a preposition), and when the omission brings the antecedent and the relative clause in juxtaposition: “Dickens's acting was a part of himself. He threw himself thoroughly into the character Л he was impersonating, and thus made it real.”. When, however, the antecedent and the relative clause are not brought into juxtaposition thereby, the relative will not so well bear omission. Example: "As for actresses, it surely would be the height of ungenerosity to blame a woman for following the only profession commanding fame and fortune Λ the kind consideration of man has left open to her." Here the phrase "commanding fame and fortune," between the antecedent and the relative clause, disturbs the reference, and the relative should be retained.1

5. In the case of the restrictive relative, the restriction may be made more attenuated and unobtrusive by reducing the relative clause to a phrase, or to a clause of more subordinated type. The following are some aspects of this:

a. A participle may thus be employed instead of the relative with principal verb; as: "We shall briefly run over the events attending (= that attended) the conquest made (= that was made) by that empire."

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b. In some cases the infinitive makes a convenient equivalent; as: He was the first to enter" (= that entered).

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c. A conditional or if-clause may put the substance of a relative clause into less prominent relation; as: If a man does not care for music, he is to be pitied" (= The_man_that does not care, etc.). It is in long sentences that this equivalent will be found most useful.2

III. COLLOCATION.

The English syntax, being devoid of the aid that inflection would give in showing the mutual relations of words, is correspondingly more dependent on order and collocation. It depends on these first of all for clearness, for unless a modifying element is carefully placed some word is liable, coming between it and its principal, to steal its real connection. Secondly, the quality of force has its claims; for as the same element may be emphatic in one position and comparatively

1 For other cases of omission of relative, see above, p. 142, and below, p. 301. 2 For the relative and its equivalents, see ABBOTT, How to Write Clearly, pp. 17-19; BAIN, Composition Grammar, pp. 63-85.

insignificant in another, much of the writer's study is naturally devoted to placing elements where they will have just the stress intended, whether weighty or slight.

To preclude Ambiguity. — Ambiguity, as has been defined earlier,1 is the suggestion of two possible meanings, between which the reader's mind is left uncertain. It may come about through the choice of a word faulty in meaning; oftener, however, it is incurred by faulty collocation of elements. The cases most requiring watchfulness against ambiguity are here given.

22. Of single words, the one that requires most care in placing, and that is oftenest misplaced, is only. The difficulty arises from the fact that only may be equally well attached to substantives, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs; to words, phrases, and clauses; and so if it is separated from its principal, something that can usurp its relation is almost sure to intervene. It is true that the word is so often misplaced that readers adjust it mentally to the modification intended; but this is no reason for placing it carelessly; as a rule it should be placed, if possible, immediately before the word or construction to which it belongs.

EXAMPLES. Daddy was only good when he was happy; and at other times he dipped recklessly into vices which would have been the ruin of them all had they been persistent.": ."2 Strictly, this means Daddy was no more than good; that is, the word "good" has usurped its attachment; the order should be "only when he was happy," the only being immediately before the phrase it modifies.

Sometimes the word only is used with an intended backward reference; and this it can have when nothing comes after to steal it; as "standing room only." Notice the ambiguity of the following: "New Huguenot churches are springing up on all sides, often in places where Protestant worship has been abolished for over two hundred years. In two departments of central France only forty-five villages have since January besought the

1 See above, under Qualities of Style, pp. 31, 32.
2 MRS. HUMPHRY WARD, David Grieve, p. 163.

Huguenot societies for regular Protestant services."1 The word alone is used for such cases.

23. Peculiarly liable to ambiguity are what may be termed the swivel particles, such adverbs as at least, at all events, perhaps, indeed, in fact; because, as their office is to set off sentence-members, they are apt to come between two emphatic elements, where their influence may be reckoned either backward or forward. Accordingly, they should always be tested for ambiguity before their place is finally decided upon.

EXAMPLES. - "I think you will find my Latin exercise, at all events, as good as my cousin's." Does this mean, "My Latin exercise, at all events, I think," etc., or, "as good as my cousin's, at all events"? Either of these orders would be unambiguous. "Disturbance was not indeed infrequently caused by the summary arrest of fugitive slaves in various parts of the North." Better: “Not infrequently, indeed, disturbance was caused,” etc.

24. A modifying phrase, like a modifying word, is either an adjective or an adverb; and in placing it a test should be made that no substantive comes in to steal the adjectival relation, no verb (or adverb, or participle, or adjective) to steal the adverbial. This is especially important where several phrases have to be grouped round one central attachment. No rule can be laid down for the relative order of phrases except to be watchful of the interior of phrases for words that may form a new nucleus of modification; it is carelessness in this regard that produces the most ludicrous effects in collocation.

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EXAMPLES. -I. Of an intervening noun. And worst of all, the heavy pall hangs over all the land of Birmingham smoke, which, with a northerly wind, blots all the color out of the country, turns the blue sky to a dull brown, makes dusky shadows under the elm tops, and hides the distance in a thin veil of London fog." Here the part between the noun and its genitival phrase contains a word (“land”) that produces confusion; it might be read "land of Birmingham smoke.”—A question of stress comes up here which will be adverted to later; see page 246, 29.

1 From a newspaper.