It would be erroneous, however, to consider the kingship of modern Europe as the mere capital of an aristocratic column. A great portion of its increased strength came from its being looked to, not only by the class in immediate contact with it, but by those lower in the social scale far less fortunately placed. The characteristic of feudalism was, indeed, to create several classes, to recognise them, and endow them with rights, which, however limited at first, were still rights. The ancient world knew but two classes, one the proprietorial and patriciate, the other which gave labour or service for livelihood. The latter had no rights; they were slaves, freedmen, or clients. Feudalism made the serf, and allowed the middle and industrious class to rise, slowly and grudgingly, no doubt, but with the instinctive mistrust that the middle class would one day dethrone it. Church and aristocracy therefore leagued to fetter the middle-class mind, which in time broke or strove to break such fetters. This effort succeeded in England, and failed in France for a time, the revolution of the latter being thus adjourned in order to be more complete. And this forms the difference between the histories of the two countries. The struggle produced the amalgamation of the two classes in England, of their ideas and their wants; whilst in France the victorious privileged classes held their antagonists at bay, till the latter called on the people to rise and accomplish the revolution, which utterly effaced, not only the institutions, but even the social landmarks of feudalism.
That feudalism and territorial constitutions have seen their day, there can be little doubt; as little, that these are already to be succeeded by a return to the old division of patriciate and non-patriciate, the former not based, as was formerly the case, upon narrow or legal privileges, but upon the broad and various claims of wealth, birth, intelligence, esteem, and personal superiority. It will require, indeed, that all these should group together and
stand by one another, if they are to hold their ground CHAP. as an upper class-the more destitute and uneducated coming to know and to gain daily the advantage of numbers, and not wanting men to teach them that strength gives right. The war of those who inherit nothing, and have nothing, against those more fortunately reared and endowed, we see in England, however disguised, as we have seen it in the latter pages of this history open and undisguised. When it becomes so flagrant and fierce, as was till lately the case in France, the wellto-do class, if unorganised, or unable to defend itself by existing institutions, will, like the upper citizens of the Italian republics, instal a podestà, or dictator, or an Emperor: this is, in other words, the sacrifice of liberty to security, which the upper class under urgent circumstances will always be compelled to make; whilst to avoid this necessity seems to be, or ought to be, the first great aim of modern statesmanship.
ABBAYE, massacre of prisoners confined in
the, iv. 524, 530. Massacre of priests in
the, 525
Abbeville refuses an aide to John II., i. 456.
The citizens bought over by Charles V., 523.
Recovered by France, ii. 264. Occupied by
French troops after the death of Charles the
Rash, 329. The Huguenots of, crushed, iii.
59. Submits to Henry IV., 312
Abd-el-Kader and his campaigns, v. 560. Sur-
renders, 562. Transported to Toulon, and
then imprisoned at Amboise, 562
A'Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, his quar-
rel with Henry II., i. 144. His cause em-
braced by Louis VII. of France, 145. Pil-
grimages to the shrine of, at Canterbury,
Abelard, Peter, his arrival in Paris, and repu-
tation in dispute, i. 135. Condemned by the
Synod of Soissons, 135. Opposed by St.
Bernard, 135. Refuses to appear before the
Council at Sens, 136. Condemned to per-
petual silence by the Pope, 136. Danger of
his new ideas in theology, ii. 70
Abendsburg, battle of, v. 161
Abercrombie, General, his death, v. 94
Aberdeen, Lord, sends M. de St. Aignan with
offers of peace to Napoleon, v. 215. Succeeds
in enforcing the right of search, 555. Sur-
prised at the seizure of Otaheite, 556. Re-
fuses his support to Mr. Pritchard, 557.
His policy as to the Spanish marriage, 566.
Consents to Montpensier's marrying the
Queen of Spain's sister, 567. Puts an end
to terror of M. Guizot, 568
Aboukir, battle of, v. 48
Abraham, battle of the Heights of, iv. 274
Absolutism, rapid establishment of, of the
French monarchs, i. 442. Every salutary
element of feudalism destroyed by the growth
of absolutism, 450. Causes in the fourteenth
century of the retrograde movement from
absolutism to federalism, 496. The position
of an absolute monarch recovered by Charles
V., 538. The weak point of absolute mo-
narchy, ii. 2. The principle of absolutism
recurred to by Charles VII., 237, 241. Louis
XI.'s views and intentions as to, 343. Para-
mount at the accession of Francis I., 447, 448.
Conflicting principles of absolutism and
liberty, iii. 2. Absolutism in the south, 2.
Henry IV. the great restorer of the mo-
narchic principle, 302. Fatal effect of ab-
solutism on France, iv. 140 See also Des-
potism.
Academy, French, founded, iii. 526
Accounts, Chamber of, established by Philip
the Long, i. 376. Regulations as to the
election to offices in the, ii. 77
Acre, siege of, by the Crusaders, i. 159. Re-
lieved by Prince Edward (afterwards Edward
I., of England), 278. The French siege of,
v. 48. Defended by Sir Sydney Smith, 48.
Besieged and surrendered to the English, 538
Adalbero, Archbishop of Rheims, his connection
with Hugh Capet, i. 62. His reforms, 62,
63. His endeavours to establish some kind
of education, 63. Advises the rejection of
the Carlovingian princes, 67. Vengeance of
the princes, 67. Absolved by Hugh Capet,
Represents Charles of Cambray, the
last of the Carlovingians, as unworthy of the
Crown, 68. His unwillingness to sanction
the hereditary succession to the throne, 78.
His death, 78
Adalbert, Count of Metz, supports the Em-
peror, i. 40. Defeated and killed, 41
Adam, Sieur de l'Isle, admitted secretly into
Paris, ii. 124. Drives out the Armagnacs,
124. How treated by Henry V. of England,
146. Joins the Constable in expelling the
English from Paris, 194. Slain in the streets
of Bruges, 238
Addington, Mr., converses with M. Otto on
French Peace, v. 107
Adelaide, Madame, consents to the elevation of
her brother, the Duke of Orleans, v. 408,
409. Advises concessions, 478. Louis
Philippe's best counsellor, 478. Advises
reforms of his measures, 581. Her death, 581
Adèle, daughter of the Count of Blois, married
to Louis VII., i. 144. Gives birth to Philip
Augustus, 144
Adelhard, general of Charles the Bold, at
Fontenailles, i. 41
Adige, passage of the, v. 90
Administration, reforms of St. Louis in the
i. 259. Louis XI.'s management of the
affairs of, ii. 348. Reforms of the ordon- |
nance of 1413, 97. Spirit of the domestic
administration of Charles VII., 241. The
administration is pacified under Louis XIII.,
iii. 418. Several Conseils established, 419.
Sketch of Richelieu's, 521-526. See also under
the names of the various Prime Ministers.
Administrative Centralisation, commencement
of the French system of, i. 170
Admiral of France, office of, suppressed by
Richelieu, iii. 468
Adolph of Nassau, Emperor of Germany, i.
310. Receives money from Edward I. of
England, and misuses it, 310. Joins Eng-
land and Flanders in war against France,
311. The Allies defeated, and Flanders
taken by Philip IV., 314. His death, 315
Adolph of Gueldres, repulsed from Tournay,
and killed, ii. 337
Adretz, Baron des, Huguenot partisan, his
cruelty to the Catholics, iii. 65. Joins the
Catholics, 65
Adrian I., Pope, election of, i. 24. Puts
Affiarta to death, 24. Besieged in Rome by
the Lombards, 24. Begs aid from Charle-
magne, 24. Who relieves Rome, and con-
firms the donation of the Exarchate to the
Pope, 25
Ægidius, Roman governor of Gaul, defeated by
Clovis, i. 4
Æresburg, capital of the Saxons, taken by
Charlemagne, i. 24
Affiarta, Paul, a Roman, in the interest of the
Lombard faction at Rome, i. 24. Put to
death by Pope Adrian, 24
Affre, Archbishop of Paris, endeavouring to
stop the effusion of blood in the insurrection,
is accidentally shot, v. 628
Africa, the French trade on the west coast of,
destroyed by the English, iv. 274
Agen, town of, occupied by the French, i. 380.
Conflicts between the Catholics and Protes-
tants at, iii. 47. Taken by Montluc, 68
Aghrim, battle of, iv. 41
Agincourt, battle of, ii. 112-114
Agnadello, battle of, ii. 428
Agosta taken by Robert of Artois, i. 300
Agoust, Marquis d', arrests two judges of
parliament, iv. 398, 399
Agriculture, state of, at the beginning of the
eighteenth century, iv. 157. Condition of
French, in the middle of the eighteenth
century, 248
Aguesseau, Chancellor d', exiled, iv. 166, 171.
Recalled, 176
Aides, burdens on the, in 1626, iii. 470. At
the end of the seventeenth century, iv. 49
Aides, the Cour des, abolished, iv. 326
Aide-toi, society of, v. 389
Aidie, Odot d', defeated at Bordeaux and
Bayonne by Charles VIII., ii. 366
Aignan, M. de St., sent with messages of peace
to Napoleon from Lord Aberdeen, v. 215
Aigues Mortes, town of, founded, i. 232.
Meeting of Francis I. and Charles V. at, ii.
543. The Protestant ministers of, hanged,
iii. 17. Given to the Huguenots, 188. De-
livered up to Louis XIII. by the Huguenot
leader Chatillon, 437
Aiguillon, Duke d', governor of Brittany,
placed in command of an army for the in-
vasion of England, iv. 277. Unable to em-
bark, 278. His quarrel with the parlia-
ment and estates of Brittany, 309. Com-
pelled to resign, 312. Demands a trial by
his peers, 322. The proceedings quashed by
the king, 322. Becomes prime minister,
324. Punishes General Dumouriez and the
Count de Broglie, 331. His château burned,
431. His proposition to the nobles for the
abandonment of their feudal privileges, 431
Aiguillon, great siege of, under John, Duke
of Normandy, i. 422. Who raises the siege,
Aimery di Paire, governor of Calais, entraps
the French under Geoffrey of Charny, i. 438
Ain, Girod de l', president of the Chambers,
V. 446
Ain, department of the, ceded to France, iii.
350
Aire besieged by the Flemings, i. 433. Who
retire before Philip VI., 433, 434
Aistulph, King of the Lombards, claims tribute
from the Romans, i. 20. His dominions in-
vaded by Pepin the Bref, 21. Lays siege to
Rome, 21. Submits to Pepin, and makes
restitution to the Pope, 21
Aix, coronation of Louis the Debonnaire at the
assembly at, i. 32. Becomes the capital of
the south of France, 216. Occupied by the
Emperor Charles V., ii. 539. Persecution
of the Protestants of, iii. 18. Cruelties in-
flicted on them, 47, 65
Aix-la-Chapelle occupied by the Normans, i.
49. Treaties of, iii. 667; iv. 245. Con-
gress of, 240
Aladonize, Lieutenant, implicated in Louis
Napoleon's conspiracy, v. 536, et seq.
Alais, reduction of the Protestants in, iii. 482
Alava, escape of, v. 329
Albany, Duke of, assumes the regency of Seot-
land, ii. 461. Abandoned by Francis I., 462.
Sent by Francis I. to threaten Naples, 482
Albemarle, Count of, killed at Courtray, i. 327
Albemarle, Duke of, taken prisoner by Mar-
shal Villars, iv. 114
Alberg. Duke d', receives the city of Frankfort,
v. 127. Sends M. de Vitrolles to the Allies,
222
Alberoni, Cardinal, his rise, iv. 146. His in-
fluence at the Spanish court, 147, 150.
Forms a league against England. 151.
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