DEATH BY CRUCIFIXION.

IN various countries crucifixion has been a mode of inflicting capital punishment upon transgressors. Among the Jews it was sometimes spoken of as hanging. It was a cruel and disgraceful death to die, as Cicero says in his oration against Verres. "The worst possible punishment," Ulpian calls it, and other ancient writers speak of it, in the same terms. It was in use among the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, with peculiar refinements of torture, according to the taste of the people, or the degree of guilt for which the victim suffered. Kitto has compiled a great many facts respecting this dreadful punishment, which cannot be read without deep emotion, when we remember that this was the death of the Lord Jesus. Herodotus says that Darius crucified three hundred persons after the siege of Babylon. Alexander nailed two thousand captives to as many crosses by the sea-side after the capture of Tyre. The Romans scourged the criminal before they crucified him. Thus they

treated our Master.

The Hebrews derived the punishment from the Romans. The upright beam was let into the ground, and the criminal being raised up, was fastened to the transverse piece by nails driven through his hands; sometimes through his feet also; and often the feet were crossed, and one nail driven through both. The feet were sometimes bound to the cross by cords. A small tablet declaring the crime was placed on the top of the cross. The victim died under the most frightful sufferings, so great that even amid the raging passions of war, pity was sometimes excited. The wounds are not in themselves fatal. A raging fever soon sets in, and the victim complains of throbbing headache, intense thirst, and pain. When mortification ensues, as is sometimes the case, the sufferer rapidly sinks. He is no longer sensible of pain, but his anxiety and sense of prostration are excessive; hiccup supervenes, his skin is moistened with a cold, clammy sweat, and death ensues. The duration of life under these agonies varied with the constitution of the sufferer, and the state of the weather. Death was hastened by the heat of the sun, and the exposure to the cold night air, but it did not ordinarily come to end the wretchedness of the victim until he had hung for thirty-six or forty-eight hours: weary hours! Eusebius

says, that many of the martyrs in Egypt, who were crucified with their heads downwards, perished by hunger. This is probably a mistake, as food would not have contributed to the support of life had the victim desired to eat but the statement proves that the martyrs must have hung for some days in anguish before they expired. Richter states that some survive on the cross for three, four, and even for nine days.

Our blessed Lord is believed to have died in about six hours from the time of being nailed to the cross. He gave up the ghost. He laid down his life. The historians speak of him as if he yielded up his breath when his work was done. But a dreadful death it was to die. And for us!

"Was it for crimes that I had done,

He groaned upon the tree?
Amazing pity, grace unknown,
And love beyond degree."

MAXIMS OF SOLOMON.

"The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; but fools despise wisdom and instruction." -Prov. i. 7.

NEVER did a truer saying issue from the lips of man. This all experience testifies. Spiritual knowledge, of course, is intended, in comparison to which a knowledge of earth and earthly things is a bubble bursting into utter insignificance. The man may be intelligent, may be learned in the lore of centuries, intimately acquainted with the refinements of this life-may walk in the flowery and thorny paths of science, from youth to manhood, from manhood to old age, without having his soul converted to God; and then, grayhaired and trembling on the tomb's verge, rich in experience and worldly wisdom, he may and he must acknowledge himself a fool. After taking a careful inventory of his knowledge, he is compelled to make the humiliating and awful confession, "I hated knowledge, and did not choose the fear of the Lord; therefore the turning away of my simple soul and the prosperity of fools shall destroy me." Let a child "turn his feet unto the testimonies of the Lord, and fiud reconciliation with God through Jesus Christ, and present, by his every day experience, an example of spiritual diligence. Now a youth, he has "become wise unto salvation now in manhood's prime, his soul is stored with

the riches of God's grace in Christ Jesusin old age, a walking library of religious experience, a practical illustration of the truth of another maxim of Solomon :— "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the man that getteth understanding, for the merchandise of it is better than the merchandise of silver, and the gain thereof than fine gold; she is more precious than rubies; and all the things thou canst desire are not to be compared unto her."

A distinction generally is made between knowledge and wisdom, and, doubtless, the distinction really exists. A man may know a great deal and not be wise. Wisdom consists in the application of knowledge to purposes of utility. A distinction also exists between a theoretical and an experimental knowledge. A man may be a Christian in theory; i. e., may have a knowledge of the provision made for him by Jesus Christ, as the interesting matter is hung out upon the sacred page, and yet be destitute of a "knowledge unto salvation." An experimental knowledge of God's mercy and truth seems to be the kind of knowledge of which "the fear of the Lord is the beginning." "But fools despise wisdom and instruction." So they do, and what a sad reflection that our world is filled with fools, ignorant, deceiving, hateful, hating one another, without hope and without God in the world! If the rejection of earthly wisdom constitutes the grand characteristic of foolishness, how much folly does a man exhibit if he persists in an absolute and final refusal of spiritual salvation? Let him who can, answer this question. I fear it can only be answered by eternal groans, by endless sighs, by everlasting misery and degradation. No excuse can be pleaded in extenuation. All have an opportunity of salvation. "The blessed gates of gospel grace stand open night and day." "Wisdom crieth without; she uttereth her voice in the streets, she crieth in the chief place of concourse, in the opening of the gates; in the city she uttereth her words saying, How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity, and the sinners delight in their scorning, and fools hate knowledge? Turn ye at my reproof; behold I will pour out my Spirit unto you-I will make known my words unto you." Gracious invitation! Impressive language! "He that runs may read."

THE STAR IN THE EAST. KEPLER, the prince of modern astronomers, under the influence of a conjunction of the planets Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars, which took place in 1664, was led to think that he had discovered means for deter

mining the true year of our Saviour's birth. He made his calculations and found that Jupiter and Saturn were in conjunction in the constellation of the Fishes (a fish is the astronomical symbol of Judea), in the latter half of the year of Rome 747, and were joined by Mars in 748. Here then he fixed the first figure in the date of our era, and here he found the appearence in the heavens which induced the magi to undertake their journey, and conducted them successfully on their way. Others have taken up this view, freed it from astrological impurities, and shown its trustworthiness and applicability in the case under consideration. It appears that Jupiter and Saturn came together for the first time on May 20th, in the twentieth degree of the constellation of the Fishes. They then stood before sunrise in the eastern part of the heavens, and so were seen by the magi. Jupiter then passed by Saturn towards the north. About the middle of September they were near midnight both in opposition to the Sun, Saturn in the thirteenth, Jupiter in the fifteenth degree, being distant from each other about a degree and a half. They then drew nearer: on October 27th, there was a second conjunction in the sixteenth degree, and on November 12th there took place a third conjunction in the fifteenth degree of the same constellation. In the two last conjunctions the interval between the planets amounted to no more than a degree, so that to the unassisted eye, the rays of the one planet were absorbed in those of the other, and two bodies would appear as one. The two planets went past each other three times, came very near together, and showed themselves all night long for months in conjunction with each other, as if they would never separate again. Their first union in the East awoke the attention of the magi, told them the expected time had come, and bade them set off without delay towards Judea (the fish land.) When they reached Jerusalem the two planets were once more blended together. Then, in the evening, they stood in the southern part of the sky, pointing with their united rays to Bethlehem, where prophecy declared the Messiah was to be born. The magi followed the finger of heavenly light, and were brought to the child Jesus. The conclusion, in regard to the time of the advent is, that our Lord was born in the latter part of the year of Rome 747, or six years before the common

era.

The author of the article in Kitto's "Biblical Illustrations," from which the above is drawn, does not call in question the exact and literal truthfulness of the gospel narrative of the Star in the East; but

he offers it as an interesting and beautiful illustration of the confirmation which science gives to Scripture. In this view, it is certainly an interesting fact, and worthy of being rendered familiar to the popular mind.

DRAWING NEAR TO GOD.

PRAYER is the very life-breath of true religion. It is one of the first evidences that a man is born again. "Behold," said the Lord of Saul, in the day he sent Ananias to him, "Behold, he prayeth." He had begun to pray, and that was proof enough.

Prayer was the distinguished mark of the Lord's people in the day that there began to be a separation between them and the world. Then began men to call on the name of the Lord."

Prayer is the peculiarity of all real Christians now. They pray; for they tell God their wants, their feelings, their desires, their fears, and mean what they say. nominal Christian may repeat prayers, and good prayers too; but he goes no further.

The

Prayer is the turning point in man's soul. Our ministry is unprofitable, and our labour is vain, till you are brought to your knees. Till then, we have no hope for you.

Prayer is one great secret of spiritual prosperity. When there is much private communion with God, your soul will grow like grass after rain: when there is little, all is at a stand still; you will barely keep your soul alive. Show me a growing Christian, a going-forward Christian, a strong Christian, a flourishing Christian, and sure am I he is one that speaks often with the Lord;

he asks much; he tells Jesus everything, and so he always knows how to act. Prayer is the mightiest engine that God has placed in our hands. It is the best weapon to use in every difficulty, and the surest remedy in every trouble. It is the key that unlocks the treasury of promises, and the hand that draws forth grace and help in time of need. It is the silver trumpet God commands us to sound in all our necessities, and it is the cry he has promised always to attend to, even as a loving mother to the voice of her child.

Prayer is the simplest means that man can use in coming to God. It is within reach of all-the sick, the aged, the infirm, the paralytic, the blind, the poor, the unlearned-all can pray. It avails you nothing to plead want of memory and want of scholarship in this matter: so long as you have a tongue to tell your soul's state, you may and ought to pray. Those words, "Ye have not, because you ask not," will be a fearful condemnation to many in the day of judgment.

EXTRACTS FROM BARNES' NOTES.* "Be watchful, and strengthen the thing which remain that are ready to die Revelation iii. 2.

Be watchful. Be wakeful; be attentive and earnest, in contradistinction from the drowsy condition of the church. Strengthen the things which remain-the true piety that still lives and lingers among you. Whatever there was of religion among them, it was of importance to strengthen it, that the love of the Saviour might not become wholly extinct. An important duty in a low and languishing state of religion is, "to strengthen the things that still survive." It is to cultivate all the graces which do exist; to nourish all the love of truth which may linger in the church; and to confirm, by way of exhortation, and by a reference to the gracious promises of God's word, the few who may be endeavouring to do their duty, and who, amidst many discouragements, are aiming to be faithful to the Saviour. In the lowest state of religion in a church there may be a few, perhaps quite obscure and of humble rank, who are mourning over the desolations of Zion, and who are sighing for better times. All such it is the duty of ministers of religion to comfort and encourage; for it is in their hearts that piety may be kept alive in the church; it is through them that it may be hoped religion may yet be revived. In the apparent hopelessness of doing much good to others, good may be always done to the cause itself, by preserving and strengthening what there may be of life among those few amidst the general desolation and death. It is much to preserve life in grain sown in a field through the long and dreary winter, when all seems to be dead,-for it will burst forth, with new life and beauty, in the spring. When the body is prostrate with disease, and life just lingers, and death seems to be coming on, it is much to preserve the little strength that remainsmuch to keep the healthful parts from being invaded, that there may be strength yet to recover. That are ready to die: that seem just ready to become extinct.

* We intend in the present volume giving occasionally a few extracts from the "Notes" of this eminent American divine. Thanks to Messrs. Routledge and others, his works have latterly become widely spread in this country, though not to the extent we should wish. For though he is often slovenly in style, though often surpassed by others, whose names might be adduced, in learning and research, he yet brings in an eminent degree a warm piety, respectable intelligence, and an unequalled tact at explaining, to bear upon his texts. We do not of course pledge ourselves to defend his polemics, which are frequently pushed to extremes; but we think in the following quotations our readers will obtain new and profitable views of Scripture.

So, sometimes, in a plant, there seems to be but the least conceivable life remaining, and it appears that it must die. So, when we are sick, there seems to be but the feeblest glimmering of life, and it is apparently ready to go out. So, when a fire dies away, there seems but a spark remaining, and it is ready to become extinct ;and thus in religion in the soul-religion in a church-religion in a community-it often seems as if it were about to go out for ever.

"And in those days Peter stood up in the midst of the disciples, and said (the number of the names together were about an hundred and twenty)," Acts i. 15.

This was the first assembly convened to transact the business of the church; and it is not a little remarkable that the vote, in so important a matter as electing an apostle, was by the entire church. It settles the question that the election of a minister and pastor should be by the church, and not be imposed upon them by any right of presentation by individuals, or by an ecclesiastical body. If a case should ever occur where a minister should be chosen by the ministry only, such a case was here in the election of another apostle; and yet in this the entire church had a voice. Whether this was all the true church at this time does not appear from the history. This expression cannot mean that there were no more Christians, but that these were all that had convened in the upper room. It is almost certain that our Saviour had by his own ministry brought many others to be his followers.

"Drink no longer water; but use a little wine for thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities," 1 Tim. v. 23.

It is evident from this passage that Timothy usually drank water only, or that, in modern language, he was a "teetotaller." He was evidently not in the habit of drinking wine, or he could not have been exhorted to do it. "He must have been a remarkably temperate youth to have required the authority of an apostle to induce him to drink even a little wine." Doddridge. -There are few young men so temperate as to require such an authority to induce them to do it. The exhortation extended only to a very moderate use of wine. It was not to drink it freely; it was not to drink it at the tables of the rich and the great, or in the social circle; it was not even to drink it by itself; it was to use a little, mingled with water; for this was the usual method: (See Atheneus, Deipho, lib. ix. x. c. 7.) It was not as a common drink; but the exhortation or command extends only to its use as a medicine. All the use

which can be legitimately made of this injunction, whatever conclusion may be drawn from other precepts, is, that it is proper to use a small quantity of wine for medicinal purposes. There are many ministers of the Gospel now, alas! to whom under no circumstance could an apostle apply this injunction, "Drink no longer water only." They would ask with surprise what he meant;-whether he intended it in irony, and for banter; for they need no apostolic command to drink wine. Or if he should address to them the exhortation, "Use a little wine," they could regard it only as a reproof for their usual habit of drinking much. To many the exhortation would be appropriate, if they ought to use wine at all, only because they are in the habit of using so much that it would be proper to restrain them to a much smaller quantity. This whole passage is one of great importance to the cause of temperance. Timothy was undoubtedly in the habit of abstaining wholly from the use of wine. Paul knew this, and he did not reprove him for it. He manifestly favoured the general habit, and only asked him to depart in some small degree from it, in order that he might restore and preserve his health. So far, and no further, is it right to apply this language in regard to the use of wine; and the minister who should follow this injunction would be in no danger of disgracing his sacred profession by the debasing and demoralizing sin of intemperance.

OUR FATHER.

It was the emperor Marcus Antonius who exclaimed, "God, the father of his people! Who would live in a world uninhabited by the gods?" If to the mind of a Pagan the idea of an orphaned world was so sad that he rejected it with horror, how can we believe those sincere who affirm that they have no vestiges of an all-wise, Almighty mind in things around them? It was another view which the lovely Cowper took, when, gazing abroad at the manifold works of Jehovah, he wrote, "My Father made them all."

That word "Father," in the Lord's Prayer, touches the tender chord of adoring love. It suggests the relation believers realize in that word, "Abba," Father. It is not my but our Father. Here we see the communion of saints illustrated by the one offering of this prayer.-Chris. Intel.

Xenophon, and the rest of the philosophers, esteemed wisdom the greatest wealth, and content the highest bliss.

WHILST the muscles in numerous instances are directly under the power of the will, there are many and important cases of motion in the animal system occurring without the concurrence or notice of the animal. It is, indeed, a happy thing for us that our vital motions are involuntary. What should we do, were the beating of our heart, the play of our lungs, or the working of our stomachs, dependent upon our attention, or connected with the volition of our will? Did these functions of the animal system depend upon our watchfulness and care, they would leave as little or no leisure for anything else. But He who made us, and who has designed that our very body should be a Divine Temple, has so constituted our frame, and given such laws to our physical structure, that motions and functions most vital to being, pursue "the noiseless tenor of their way," needing little, and even no attention from man, whose thought and volition are left free to other and necessary acts and occupations.

HAMBURGHER has well said, "the wisdom of the Creator is in nothing seen more gloriously than in the heart. How well does it execute its office? From the complexity of its parts, and the delicacy of its mechanism, it might be supposed very liable to derangement; yet will this wondrous piece of Divine mechanism go, night and day, for "three-score years and ten, and, by reason of strength, four-score years," at the rate of one hundred thousand strokes every twenty-four hours, without disorder, without weariness, and without giving its possessor a moment's trouble to keep its delicate and unique machinery in order, and without requiring that the works should be suspended for a moment to repair or renew any part of its machinery! Where is the watchmaker that could produce such a chronometer? How would the engineer add to his fame, who could send forth from his works a steam-engine that should thus ceaselessly and uninterruptedly continue going and working! Shall a moderately-successful effort of human skill command attention and secure renown; but, shall the mightier works of the Infinite be regarded as matters of course, and as unworthy of admiration? The force with which this involuntary action takes place, adds to the wonder of the case; especially when we recollect, that the pipes, and tubes, and vessels,

which have to sustain this force, are all composed of tissue, in itself so tender and feeble. The aorta of a whale, measured by HUNTER, was a foot in diameter. From ten to fifteen gallons of blood were thrown out of the heart, at a stroke, with immense velocity. Tubes of iron or of pottery would not have been insensible to the momentum and constant friction; but this animal organization, though made of the flimsiest and most feeble material, easily and securely stands this incessant and powerful wear and tear!

Difference of opinion may exist as to the principle on which the heart acts; but all thoughtful men must concur in the wondrous fact of the regularity of its action taking place without requiring, for years in succession, a moment's care on the part of the animal. The principle of its action may be irritation, excited by the contact of the blood, or it may be the influx of a nervous fluid. But whatever be its cause, it produces, in a living muscular fibre, reciprocal contraction and relaxation. The heart is a hollow muscle, invested with spiral fibres, running in both directions, the layers intersecting each other. By the contraction of these fibres, the sides of the muscular cavities are necessarily squeezed together, so as to force out of them their contained fluids. By the relaxation of these fibres, the cavities are in their turn dilated, and of course prepared to receive any fluid waiting for admission into them. Into these cavities are inserted the great trunks of the arteries, which carry out the blood from the heart, and of the veins, which bring it back to this vital organ. At each pulse, therefore, both a motion, and also an important change in the mass of the blood contained in each cavity of the heart, occur. According to KEILL each ventricle contains one ounce, or two table spoonsfull of blood. The heart contracts at least four thousand times an hour. There pass, therefore, through the heart, every hour, four thousand ounces, or three hundred and fifty pounds of blood. The whole mass of blood in an average human body is calculated at about twenty-five pounds. It follows, then, that a quantity of blood, equal to the whole mass of blood in the body, passes through the heart fourteen times in an hour, or about once every four minutes. What works of man, in providing means for distributing water through a town, can compare with this work of