of the educational system of the country, and founded schools of law, language, science, and art, and a normal school. Since 1885 progress has been as rapid as could be expected, as will be seen from the tables at the end of this volume.

A modus vivendi has been established between the state schools and the university and the divergence between the two systems is being gradually narrowed down. Artin Pacha looks forward, "patient in his impatience," "to see the seed sown by the great political and intellectual regenerator of Egypt bearing its fruits; nor does he hesitate to express his belief that the "ancient and illustrious university mosque of El Azhar, animated by the scientific spirit which is urging us forward, will take its place by the side of its younger and more justly celebrated sisters, the universities of modern Europe, who have outstripped us in the past." The education of women is: First, religion, given by chicks or women teachers; and, second, domestic, i. e., teaching, housekeeping, manners, embroidery, singing, and so on. Dancing, of course, is not a custom of respectable orientals. The age at which girls are married, viz, between 12 and 16, is a serious impediment to a complete system of instruction. Curiously enough, even the limited instruction given at present is partly due to the establishment of a midwifery school in 1836; the sages femmes were the partially innocent cause of the creation of a thirst for knowledge; at any rate they taught the elementary principles of hygiene in countless native families and this widening of the horizon was productive of immediate good.

France.-M. Antoine Albalat, in an article in the Nouvelle Revue, draws a most harrowing picture of the results of the purely theoretical educational system, which, until a few years ago, was looked upon as a panacea of all evils. France, nowadays, he says, is nothing but a large civil-service employment agency. And the struggle for life with us means the race for government and other posts. Thanks to political equality and free education, which have reduced all to a dead level, the French nation, once so fertile in ideas and so original, threatens to become nothing but a nation of civil servants and pedagogues. Just count the number of place seekers! The prefect of the department of the Seine published a few months ago the following list of vacancies and applicants in that department: Junior clerks, 4 vacancies, 4.398 applicants; male teachers, 42 vacancies, 7.139 applicants; drawing masters, 3 vacancies, 147 applicants; customhouse clerks, 165 vacancies, 2,773 applicants; surveyors, 1 vacancy, 1,338 applicants. The civil service, the post-office, the telegraph office, and the schools have all greatly increased their teaching force, and they are at present the bane of our country. France may be roughly divided into those who hold positions and those who seek them. The vast majority of Frenchmen have only one dream, to be kept by the state, to live on the public taxes. Parents have no other ambition for their children-the civil servant, the young man who draws Government pay, is their ideal son-in-law.

Even the sons of the soil are streaming into the towns, be it only to sit behind the pay desk. But the women are more to be pitied. In default of marriage, they are seeking work, especially as teachers. But how soon they are undeceived! Read the bitter plaints with which they continually fill the ears of the minister of education. The state promised them a peaceable, respectable life, with a secure income; and thousands of them are without positions, on the verge of despair, and fall an easy prey to temptation. No one will ever know the number of these victims of arithmetic and French history that are swallowed up by the great gulf of vice. "I know nothing more sad than this," exclaims M. Albalat. Here is the result of our theoretical, Utopian, and modern education! We talk of a fourth estate. There is a fifth estate, namely, the women who have to earn their living by their brains. (Lond. Jl. of Ed.)

Germany.-Prof. Weber, of Steglitz, near Berlin, who acted for some time as assistant principal in English schools, answers the question: "Do English schools deserve to be considered models for German schools?" in the negative.

"Any observant foreigner who has lived in England," says he, "even if only for a short time, must have been struck with the great self-consciousness of the Englishman, which quality is already developed to a high degree in the little boy. The Englishman is proud of the language of his country, of its riches, and of its institutions. As a consequence it is a common fault with him to depreciate other nations and to overrate himself and his own people. To this national selfreliance he adds a great love of individual liberty and self-dependence. He will not under any circumstances be deprived of them, either by the state or by the church, and he hates all bureaucratic ways, or, as he calls it, red-tape business.' Then he possesses a profound respect for the law and for the existing institutions of the state, as well as in general a true sense of religion, which sense is

greatly fostered and enhanced by his family life. Moreover, we find in the Englishman the singular inclination to ask first of all in everything he undertakes: Of what use is it?' 'Englishmen can not take anything easy,' says Karl Hildebrand in ‘Briefe aus England,' 'neither can they take anything idealistically. They transpose everything at once into the practical. English idealism is always practical, in contradistinction to the German, which manifests itself in artistic contemplation.' To this practical sense the English partly owe their supremacy upon the seas, and we Germans, who but a short time since began to acquire colonies, may learn very much in this respect from the practical Englishman.

These different peculiarities of the English character are distinctly expressed in the English schools; they exert a mutual influence upon each other and are mutually dependent upon one another.

"As the whole life of the Englishman is chiefly based on the principle of utility, so also in his school life he places this principle in the first rank.

The average Englishman does not, as a rule, strive after knowledge if he does not see his way to make practical use of it; in other words, he does not pursue knowledge for her own sake. This principle is very dangerous and pernicious to the intellectual progress of a people, and it is not to be wondered that a notion or a true idea of the elements of science is unknown to the great masses. "For the language, literature, and the history of other nations,' Mr Brennecke rightly says, for efforts in art which adorn and cheer the inner life, the average Englishman, deducting, of course, amateurs, the upper 10,000, and specialists, have no time in life,' because, I add, he does not understand nor appreciate them. We Germans are, however, only too easily inclined to lay too much stress upon the scientific side of things, and in so doing to forget often the practical use of the results we obtain.

"The English system cares little about the acquirement of manifold knowledge by the pupils and the scientific treatment of the subjects, but it tries, before all, to fulfill two tasks: Firstly, to develop the physique of the pupil, to make him in all respects healthy and capable of resistance, and to harden him against physical and moral injury. This having been accomplished, the teacher's aim is to develop in the vigorous body an independent, firm character; he will accustom the boys to absolute truth, candor, and resoluteness; they must quickly and independently find the right thing and learn to execute. In a word, the English master educates; the German rather instructs.

"A great difference between English and German school arrangements consists in this: The English Government pays no attention to the higher and - middle schools. An organization and superintendence of the schools by the state, as in Germany, does not exist; these schools are either a private commercial speculation or they have been founded by old and often very rich endowments or by corporations. The Englishman is far too independent to allow the state the right of prescribing for him the education of his children. But there are already reasonable Englishmen enough who believe that a firm organization of all schools by the state can do more for education in general than the doubtful trade of private schools, and they demand the same institution as in Germany. In Scotland state superintendence was introduced in 1885.

"Thus the state can give no prerogatives to schools, and that at least is very good, for the prerogatives given to our schools do a great deal of harm in hindering their free development.

"I will not, however, forget to mention that a certain supervision of schools is exercised in England by the press and literature, and the power of the press over the masses is much greater in England than with us.

"A certain uniformity in scholastic matters between the more superior public and even private schools is to be seen in the local examinations, which are held annually by the universities.

"Some secondary schools also submit voluntarily every year to regular examinations, for their own credit's sake, 'so as to give the world confidence in them.' But in comparison to a firm organization these examinations can be but a miserable makeshift. Mr. Raydt informs us that for some time there have been held regular meetings of school principals, which might, indeed, have a good influence upon the formation of a uniform plan of teaching; but why are the debates of these meetings not published, as in Prussia? By these means they would become of common service to every teacher. In this regard I can not sufficiently praise the reports of the school inspectors on the elementary schools inspected by them in their districts. These reports are printed in the Parliamentary papers and contain many interesting and useful points.

'It is the German elementary school work by which the English should learn how salutary is the supervision of schools by the state, and how they should especially reform their middle-class or secondary schools."

Guatemala.-Primary education in Guatemala is obligatory, maintained by the state, free and secular. The sum spent on education in 1887-88 (ending June 30) was $525,625, of which $253,927 were for primary education. In 1887 there were 93,627 children of school age. At the end of 1889 there were, according to official statements, 1,327 primary schools of all kinds, attended by 47,907 pupils, and 66 higher schools, with 3,677 pupils. There were in addition 7 high and normal schools, with 1,185 pupils (315 females).

Montenegro.-Schools for elementary education in Montenegro are supported by Government; education is compulsory and free; there are (1889) 70 elementary schools, with 3,000 male and 300 female pupils. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium or college for boys at Cețtinje, and a girls' high school maintained at the charge of the Empress of Russia.

Hawaii.-The Kingdom of Hawaii (comprising eight large productive and thirteen small desolate islands), with 80,000 inhabitants, is of special importance for commercial intercourse between North America and East Asia. It is well known that the recently deceased King Kalakaua, in 1881, made an extensive tour through America and Europe. European institutions and therewith Christianity were introduced in Hawaii at the beginning of our century and special attention was given to education. The United States exert the greatest intluence upon the administration of this Kingdom and covertly aim at the protectorate over the Kingdom. Its annexation on the part of the United States is only a question of time.

From the main island public education was diffused over the whole Kingdom in a comparatively short time. At the beginning of the second decade of our century the chieftain and his most distinguished subjects diligently studied reading and writing. This awakened everywhere the desire to learn these wonderful arts. The most able men among the adult students were sent as teachers to all parts of the country, and the throng to their schools was so great that in 1827 there were 52,000 persons studying in 900 schools, or more than half the number of the inhabitants were eagerly engaged in acquiring the elements of learning. In 1832 the number of natives who could read amounted to 32,000, of whom nearly all were also able to write. At present there is in operation in Lahainaluna a normal school for the training of preachers and teachers, who alternately devote themselves to intellectual and physical work, as the students earn their living by the tilling of a farm belonging to the institution. Manual work takes a prominent place in all schools of the little Kingdom. Education is obligatory for both sexes from 6 to 15 years of age (formerly 4 to 14). A peculiar feature is the regulation in force that anybody who can not read or write is prohibited from obtaining public office and also forbidden to marry.

The Kingdom is divided into twenty-three school districts, each of which is under the supervision of an inspector. This official superintends the management of the schools, both the instruction and the buildings and sites. He is required to furnish quarterly a report to the central authority. The school year has forty-one school weeks. The daily sessions are from 9 to 2 o'clock, with one or two intermissions. Sunday and Saturday are holidays. There are different classes of schools:

1. Primary schools (common schools), where the entire instruction is given in the Hawaiian language.

2. English schools, where the English language is the means of instruction. 3. Private schools, in which both languages are used.

The school at Lihue, on the island of Hawaii, in which German and English are taught, belongs to the third class and is attended by children of German workingmen only. For children of the aristocracy there is a kind of secondary school that took its name from the street in which it is situated, "Fort Street School." Protestant missionaries established near Honolulu, on the island of Qahu, the principal city of the country, the "Qahu College," after the pattern of French schools. Catholic missionaries also established schools whose textLooks are, with few exceptions, printed at Honolulu in the native language. The direction of the entire educational system has been assigned to a "bureau" or "board," consisting of five members, of which three are natives who were educated in the country. The president, at present Mr. Bishop, was formerlysecretary of the state department: previous to that, a member of the house of nobles and president of the legislative body. This bureau appoints the teachers and superintends the expenditure of the money appropriated by the representatives of the

people. It nominates a general superintendent for the whole educational system, who visits each school of the country twice a year to examine the pupils and the condition of the school. He reports to the bureau or board. In order to fulfill his duties the general superintendent is obliged every year to travel 800 miles on horseback and 1,600 miles by water. During the school year 1888-89, there were in the Kingdom 179 schools, 63 primary, 69 English and 47 private schools, with 8,770 pupils (4,952 boys, 3,818 girls), with a teaching force of 334 members (177 men, 157 women). At the last exposition in Paris, in 1889, there was on exhibition pupils' work from Hawaii, nearly all of which was expressed in good English and in pleasing form.

The educational system in Hawaii furnishes proof of how much one can do if stimulated by earnestness of intention. Scarcely sixty years have passed since the first pioneers of public education commenced their work in Hawaii, and already its public school system can compare with that of Europe.

The state, however, has easy sailing because it has the schools, and no obstacles are raised by the church, since religious societies and the clergy are excluded from the management of school affairs. (Freie päd Blätter.)

Hungary.-Count Albion Casky, the minister of public instruction in Hungary, has recently issued in the German language a synopsis of his annual report, in which he says that he considers professional supervision and a thoroughly trained corps of teachers the most important factors of progress in any school system. So far as figures can speak, certainly Hungary has made rapid progress during the last twenty years. The report shows a comparison between the state of affairs in 1859 and 1889, from which we cull the following items:

1. Elementary schools. In 1889, 2,015,612 children attended school, while in 1869 only 1,152,115. In comparison with the number of children of school age between 1869 and 1889, an increase of attendance from 50.42 per cent to 80.65 per cent is recorded. While in 1869 1,598 communities were without any schools, that number had decreased to 244 in 1889. The number of schools in 1869 was 13,798; in 1839 it was 16,702. In 1869 the number of teachers was 17,792, while in 1889 it had increased to 24,645. The expenditures for maintaining elementary schools in 1869 were only $1,342,363, but in 1889 they amounted to $5,396,777. While in 1869 the state's subvention to elementary schools was only $14,556, it was $6,505,315 in 1889. The great increase recorded above is found only in those portions of the Kingdom inhabited by people of the Hungarian, German, and Ruthenian tongues. The attendance of Roumanian, Servian, and Slavakish children is in a rather backward condition.

II. Secondary schools.-The Kingdom has 180 secondary schools; that is, 151 gymnasia, or classical colleges, and 29 realschulen, or modern colleges. One hundred and thirteen are complete in their organization, while sixty-seven had not quite completed their organization, lacking the senior classes. The classical schools were attended by 36,367 students, or 83.3 per cent; the modern by 7,303 students, or 16.7 per cent. The minister remarks that the attendance in modern schools is increasing faster than in the classical schools.

III. Superior schools.-Concerning universities, technical and other superior institutions, the minister reports that the candidates for the profession of teaching and students of technical, agricultural, and military schools are increasing in number faster than those of the universities. In the universities he notices that the law faculties and academies are still overcrowded, as in former years, while the number of candidates for theology, medicine, forestry, and mining is decreasing. An interesting feature of the superior education in Hungary is this: The examination for graduation must be exceptionally rigorous, for of 877 candidates for the legal profession only 521 (that is, 59 per cent) passed the examination; of 297 medical students, only 207 (or 69 per cent); of 140 students of the philosophic faculty, only 38 (or 27 per cent); of 210 students of the Polytechnicum, only 80 (or 38 per cent) passed.

Italy. A new school for Italy is now under the consideration of the council of public instruction, and its provisions are foreshadowed in the "New Educator" of Rome. It is proposed to transfer the charge of the infant schools from the minister of the interior to the minister of instruction, and the age of compulsory attendance is raised to twelve years. The appointment of teachers is left in the hands of the communal boards. Teachers under 21 years of age will only be provisionally appointed; on coming of age their status will be improved, and at the age of 24 they will be recognized as fully responsible teachers. Thenceforth they will be removable only for grave offenses specified in the bill; their dismissal will have to be approved by the provincial board of education, and an appeal to the minister will probably be allowed.

School-inspector Gen. Pisani has recently published a book on the Italian schools which is designed to show what progress public education has made during recent years in Italy. The number of elementary pupils in 1889-90 was 2,102,615 (or 1,094,467 boys and 1,008,148 girls): this is an increase of 55,000 over the previous year. Of the sum total, 1,966,988 pupils were in public schools, 135,627 in private schools. The number of classes in the public schools was 78,675, hence the average number of pupils per class room was 25. The private schools had 8,791 classes, which is an average of 15 pupils per class room. The number of teachers, however, is not equal to the number of classes; it is only 41,336 for public and 5,063 for private schools. The number of teachers shows an increase of 1,500 over the previous year. It is evident that most of the teachers teach two classes a day. The hygienic conditions of the schools and the school furniture are said to be anything but satisfactory. The teachers are not well prepared for their profession and their standing in society is very inferior. The communal authorities are said to be irregular in paying their teachers. A law is being prepared which will protect the teachers from arbitrary action on the part of the local authorities, and securing the payment of a minimum salary by the state.

Japan. The house of representatives in the new diet of Japan is extremely anxious to cut down the budget, and a conflict is imminent between it and the government on this subject. Its proposals are sweeping, and if carried out would cause no little consternation in the education department. The grant for schools would be reduced from $800,000 to about half that sum. Some five years since the late Viscount Mori, who perished by an assassin's knife on the day of the declaration of the constitution, just two years ago, established five great secondary schools in different centers throughout the Empire, to act as feeders for the university and to serve as a check on the growing congestion of students in the capital. These institutions are specially threatened by the parliamentary reformers, many of whom hold Spencerian views and dislike government control in education. Generally speaking, this is a critical time for education in Japan. The rising generation is growing up without those habits of instinctive obedience and reverence which characterized the previous civilization, and the capable teachers are all young and comparatively untried men. The question how to preserve sound morality and discipline in the schools is causing grave concern at headquarters. There is a conservative government at full flow just now; the demand for foreigners as teachers is at ebb, the schools in most cases preferring Japanese who can help them to translate. Foreigners have never been so unpopular since the great revolution.

There is a troublesome class in the capital known as soshi, a word which is difficult to translate so as to convey an adequate meaning. They are not students, though so described sometimes, but rather political unattached meddlers who would right all wrongs by use of the sword, sticks, and bombs. They profess to be intense patriots, and are certainly in many cases reckless of their lives and most deliberate in carrying out their plans. The only school in which anything of the soshi spirit has appeared is the secondary school of Tokio, some of the students in which have once or twice disgraced themselves. (London Journal of Education.)

Mexico.-The Pædagogium (Dresden and Vienna) of March, 1891, contains an interesting account of recent educational movements in our neighbor republic, written by a resident, whose name is withheld by the editor, Dr. F. Dittes.

For a number of years both the central government, as well as the officials of the separate states, have made praiseworthy efforts to promote public instruction, and particularly to bring the education of the masses to a level worthy our century, and by doing so to lift the degree of culture of the nation in morals, science, and material welfare, so that Mexico might occupy a place among the civilized nations of the world corresponding to its advantageous natural conditions and resources.

However, these efforts and the willingness to make grand sacrifices have not been crowned with the success which one would justly be entitled to expect, if the enormous sums are considered that were expended for the purpose.

The main causes of this lamentable fact are, the want of well-trained professional teachers; frequent misunderstanding of educational theories taken from foreign pedagogical works; the blind acceptation or rejection of new ideas, methods, and theories in accordance with the first impression; finally, the chaos arising from the fact that every state, however small it may be, and although all are subject to the same central government, has its own school legislation. Hence, in the preparation of teachers in the studies of elementary and secondary