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the sixth occupying a single term, complete in itself, for students whose chief attention is given to other branches. Three to eight terms' work constitute a major course; that of the single term a minor course. To a very large extent natural objects are studied rather than books; but constant endeavor is made to introduce students to pertinent existing literature. In the laboratory much use is made of the compound microscope and special attention is given to its manipulation for best results, and to the preparation of objects.

The courses offered as major work (ten hours a week) are: (1) the histology, morphology, and physiology of plants; (2) bacteriology; (3) advanced determi native and biological work on fungi; (4) the reproduction and development of plants: and (5) research work for two terms of the senior year for such as are to present a botanical thesis for graduation.

The zoology is taught in five courses: (1) a major course (restricted elective) of a full year, ten hours a week; (2) a term of embryology, likewise ten hours a week, for those who have taken course 1; (3) two terms of research work (senior) for those who have taken courses 1 and 2, and.who select a zoological subject for the graduating thesis; (4) a year's work, open elective, in systematic zoology for advanced students only; and (5) a general course of a single term, offered as a minor course in the school of natural science and as an elective to the students of the university at large.

A course in practical and general embryology and in the theory of evolution is given in the fall term as a sequel to course 1. It is required of all students intending to present a zoological thesis, except such as take course 4.

A single course of two terms, ten hours a week, is offered in entomology. It is designed mainly as a preparation for economic work and investigation as a specialty; but students whose principal interest is in structural or systematic entomology are permitted to take a special line of such work in the second term. Palæontology is taught at present as a term's work in geology, and requires a major or a minor course in zoology as a precedent.

The department of human physiology is as yet in embryo, but ample provision for the development of the subject as an experimental science has been made in the new building. At present but a single term is given to it. Comparative physiology is taught extensively, however, as a part of zoology, with assigned experiments by students on the lower animals from the protozoa upwards.

For those who have taken a major course in either botany or zoology a single term (ten hours a week) of general biology is arranged and especially commended. It is intended to review, extend, systematize, and unify the student's knowledge of the phenomena, the history, and the laws of life, of the relations of plant and animal, of living and not living matter, and of biology to other sciences and to philosophy. It is properly a senior study for students of the school of natural science.

The studies of animal life are brought to a conclusion by a single term's work (three hours a week) in anthropology, the objects of which are to summarize the facts and theories relating to the origin of man, to introduce the comparative study of races with a view to ascertaining their relations to each other and to primitive man, and to study the steps by which races change from the savage to the enlightened stage.

The subject of physiological psychology in the department of philosophy is so correlated with these biological courses as to amount to a practical continuation of their methods and spirit into the field of psychological investigation.

Intimately associated with the zoological department of the university, and practically merged with it since 1884, is the work of the Illinois State laboratory of natural history and that of the State entomologist of Illinois, the former consisting essentially of a systematic and thorough-going investigation of the zoology and cryptogamic botany of the State, the results of which are in course of publication by the State, and the latter of entomological investigations whose main end is economic, but whose product is largely scientific and educational. Both these departments of work, although supported by appropriations independent of those granted to the university, are directed by the head of the zological department of university instruction, and provided with quarters and facilities in the new natural science hall. The State laboratory is also the headquarters of an extensive work on the zoology of the fresh waters of the United States, conducted under the auspices of the U. S. Fish Commissioner.

The natural science building is 134 feet in length by 94 in width, and three stories in height above the basement. There is a spacious, well-lighted central hall, around which on all sides are situated laboratories, lecture rooms, closets, storerooms, and dark rooms, a full series for each department.

As an example of the arrangement and equipment of this building a general description may be given of the provision for zoology. The students' la oratories in this department are three in number, on the first floor, for elementary, advanced, and post-graduate work, respectively. In the first, table room is given for 30 students; in the second, for 16; and in the last, for 10. Adjoining the first is the private laboratory of the assistant in zoology and next this is the lecture room. Direct y over the assistant's laboratory is that of the professor of zoɔ̃logy, and over the post-graduate laboratory is his private office. On this second floor are also the rooms of the State laboratory of natural history, consisting of an assistant's laboratory, 36 feet by 21; a collection room of the same dimensions; a library, 32 feet by 23; and a room for the artist of the establishment. In the basement of the building is a very large storercom for the department, and an animal room to be fitted with aquaria, animal cages, and the like. On the third floor are he zoological collection rooms, containing the material required to illustrate the work of the department. The zoological laboratories are furnished with microscopes and with an abundance of microscope apparatus, including several first-class microtomes, an imbedding apparatus, and an incubator. A full equipment for field work in the various departments is at the service of the students, and the library and collections of the State entomologist and the State laboratory of natural history are also made accessible to them under suitable restrictions.

The general museum of zoology and geology is in another building. It occupies a hall 79 by 61 feet, with a gallery on three sides, and it is completely furnished with wall, table, and alcove cases, full to overflowing with prepared material.

HIGHER INSTRUCTION IN THE SCIENCE AND ART OF TEACHING.

I.

If the boast of autobiographies and the complaints of State superintendents go for aught it would seem that in many cases in the early days of the public school systems of the New England States the common schools were taught by college undergraduates, who thus "worked their way through college." Even now it has been stated that "of the more than 6,000 public school teachers in Tennessee at least two-thirds are working earnestly to obtain a good education either by private study or by teaching school and attending college alternately." In this way it is possible to explain the fact that in Massachusetts fifteen years elapsed between the founding of her first normal school and the establishment of public scholarships at Harvard and other colleges for the purpose of providing competent instructors for her one hundred publie high schools in existence at

the date of 1853.

But by the act of that year Massachusetts did not establish a higher normal training; for forty-eight scholarships of $400 each were created and distributed among her colleges, twelve of which were annually given to as many person selected from among the forty scholarship districts into which her territory had been for this purpose divided,-" The scholarships were filled, the holders graduated, but they failed to become teachers." The colleges turned out what is usually called educated men but not teachers. In 1866 these scholarships were abolished.

There is still another early attempt in this line to chronicle. In 1851 Brown University established a department of didactics in which a course of lectures was given "On the habits of mind necessary to eminent success in teaching, the relation of the teacher to the pupil, etc., and on the elements of the art of teaching or the best methods of imparting instruction in reading, grammar, geography, history, mathematics. language, and the various other branches taught in our higher seminaries." The school, however, soon closed its doors.

This movement, however, was not confined to New England. At the instance of the State superintendent of Michigan the board of regents of the university of that State in 1860 permitted a course of lectures to be given on the principles and philosophy of education and the organization and mangement of schools. But it appears that the University of Iowa was the first to reward the student of pedagogy with a distinctive degree.

131st Annual Rept. Mass. Bd. Ed. (1867), p. 71.

After the repeal of the act of 1853 creating forty-eight scholarships the educational authorities of Massachusetts urged the necessity of an additional and higher course of instruction in the four normal schools of that State. At the d..te of 1870 those schools had a voluntary" course of two years, chiefly atten.ed by ormer graduates, "who had learned from their experience in teaching the value of a more advanced scholarship."

It was not until 1879 that a definite step was taken in the way of recognizing pedagogy as a science and also of recognizing the necessity of training teachers for schools above the elementary grade. In that year the University of Michigan established a chair which took the expressive name of the "Science and art of teaching." In considering the instruction given from this chair, the inquirer is struck with three facts, to wit, the announcement that the science of education, being one of the latest of the sciences, had not yet been cast intɔ articulate form, in fact was in process of formation; the scholastic character of the a tendance on the course, two-thirds of whom were college graduates; and most im ortant of all, the double requirements to be fulfilled before the teacher's diploma" was given to the candidate, the requirements being (1) marked ability in either Greek, Latin, French, or physics as shown by special examinations, and (2) one of the courses offered by the professor of the science and art of t aching. The course of this chair was not long, only occupying, indeed, an ac-demic year, and even this time was halved, one-half being devotel to the study of supervision, grading, courses of study, examinations, the art of instruction and governing (no practice or model school), school architecture, school law, in a word, superintendency, and therefore called practical; and the other half to the history and science of education and comparative pedagogy, if that term may be coined.

The difference between this course and those of either the French École Normal, or the Prussian training colleges for Gymnasialpädagogik is marked. To i. ustrate this it may be profitable to compare the work at the University of Michigan with that of two typical Prussian training colleges for candidates for teachers' positions in the classical schools called gymnasiums.

BERLIN (1885-86).-ESSAYS BY THE MEMBERS OF THE SEMINARY.

The great Homeric hymn on Mercury. De Nemæorum Pindari carminum locis quibusdam controversis.

Platonica (critical essay on some points in the Symposium).

Remarks on the names of Greek priests. Quaestiones Tullianæ ad libros de inventione spectantes.

Aschylus's De Aristophanis Thesmophoriazusis quæstiones dum. (Question 1. Was the work published in 411 B. C.? Question 2. A critical examination of verses 1001-1033.)

The tax levy of Nausinikos and the Trierarch law of Periander and Demosthenes.

Current work (1 instance): Criticism of a member upon Bindseil's recent book on composition (in German) in the highest class of a gymnasium (college).

The critic was praised for the accuracy and intelligence displayed in his work; but was criticised for withholding his own judgments and for agreeing with many doubtful statements. In conclusion the director seized the occasion to speak from his own experience on the matter contained in the essay and to connect the whole discussion with the object of the seminarium, that is to say, the training for teaching in a gymnasium.

ANN ARBOR (1880-81).-ANNOUNCEMENT.

Course I (one semester).

The general purpose will be not as much to teach specific methods as to put pupils in firm possession of a body of doctrine out of which they may draw their own methods. Recitations and lectures four times a week.

The varieties, true, and common conception of labor and a basis for estimating its value. Qualities needed for superintendence, the supervision of schools and its value.

Delegated power, its rights and privileges; relation of the board to the people, of superintendent to board and to teachers, and his duties.

The purpose and methods of the teachers' meeting.

The nature, advantages, and disadvantages of a graded school.

The course of study.

Course II (one semester).

Historical, philosophical, and critical, embracing the history of education, the comparison and criticism of the systems of different countries, the outlines of educational science, the science of teaching, a critical discussion of theories and methods. A translation of Paroz's Histoire Universelle de la Pédagogie is in progress and this will be the basis in this portion of this course. Special studies on the reformers in education will be made.

The general purpose of the second course will be to teach general principles and doctrines rather than specific methods. Pupils will be taught in the assumption that they can form for themselves their own art out of the principles they have learned and that have sufficient versatility to adopt their methods to the requirements of circumstances.

Private reading required and a course in philosophy or on lectures XXXI-XXXVI, of Hamilton's Metaphysics.

MAGDEBURG (1883-84).-ESSAYS BY THE MEMBERS OF THE SEMINARY.

Criticism of Jean Paul Richter's Lavana:

1. The Importance of Education.

2. Spirit and Principle of Education.

3. Culture through Religion.

4. Origin of Man and Instruction.

5. Bidding and Forbidding.

Proof of the last antinomy in Plato's Parmenides.

The justification and purpose of classical in

struction.

Indirect questions in Greek.

What is Herbart's idea of instruction in a foreign language, and upon what has he founded it?

How far is Xenophon's prejudice for Laconia
shown in his Hellenica?

Perthes's proposition to reform instruction in
Latin.

Three hours of Virgil in a Gymnasium.
Montaingne as a Pedagogue.

Montaigne and Rousseau.

Locke's position in pedagogy.

Literary and historical study of Jodelle's
Plays.

Criticism of an essay entitled "The charac-. ter and purpose of classical instruction,” by the Director, as follows:

"The paper shows a certain amount of industry; but the theme is not worked out, nor does the author go very deeply into his supject. The essay is more a reproduction of stale thoughts than the independent expressions of opinions of a mind filled with enthusiasm for the dead languages."

Having thus briefly reviewed the efforts to provide for the professional training of teachers at our higher institutions of learning, we now turn to consider the condition of the study of pedagogy in those institutions at the present day. Those interested in the work of the normal schools usually so called are referred to chapters xi-xiv of the Bureau's Report for 1888–89.

II.

It would be difficult to generalize on the pedagogical courses of the more important universities of this country, as they have few elements that are common. Two of these elements, however, are of considerable interest. One is that some universities have complete courses in pedagogy, whether graduate or undergraduate, while others make it an elective study for juniors and seniors in the regular college course. The other common element is that by establishing such a course or study these institutions recognize that the person who intends to teach should have instruction in matters and in methods that the candidate for the degree in arts or science does not receive. This may not be an attempt to recognize education or pedagogy as a science, as political economy or politics under the name of sociology has been recognized, but it is certainly placing pedagogy on the same footing as those subjects.

The only classification of the university courses in the science and art of education that is attempted here is the division into courses in which special pedagogy (methods in Latin, mathematics, etc.) receives the emphasis and those in which the emphasis is placed upon the science of education. To illustrate the first the recently established course at Harvard is used; to illustrate the second the course at Clarke University is given.

From its age, standing, and its conservative attitude in the matter of according to pedagogy a place among the sciences, Harvard University caused more than a passing interest when it announced that in its faculty of arts and sciences "courses for teachers on methods of instruction" had been established. These courses are of university grade; that is to say, they are only open to those who have graduated from a college of arts or of science. As was the case at the University of Michigan in 1879, there is a department or course of pedagogy proper, which is called "The history, theory, and art of teaching," and many courses, each concerned with the best methods of teaching the several studies of the college curriculum. The history, theory, and art of teaching course is divided into three departments, to wit: History of teaching and of educational theories, theory of teaching, and the art of teaching. The first and third are considered, either in the form of a lecture or discussion, twice a week during the year; the second, only once a week. In the first and second subjects two essays are required from the student, in the third the student is expected to observe the teaching in some designated school or schools in the vicinity of the university and, during the second half year, to present reports on what he has seen. In addition to this instruction given or directed by an assistant professor of the university, twelve lectures on "Topics in psychology of interest to teachers" are delivered by the professor filling the chair of philosophy at the university. In special pedagogy there are thirteen subjects of study, Greek, Latin, English, German, French, history. mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zool

ogy, geology, and geography. The syllabus for Greek and chemistry will very well illustrate the method of conducting courses in language and in science.

GREEK.

(1) Lectures (once a week during the second half year). Topics: Discussion of existing methods of acquiring the elements. Outline of method recommended in teaching forms and syntax. Method of securing practical application of the knowledge acquired. The art of reading. Acquisition of a vocabulary. Translation and retranslation. Review of grammar during the second year's work in school. Wider application of the principles of "reading at sight" and of the group system" in the acquisition of a vocabulary. Method of teaching the facts of geography, history, and antiquities. Greek prose composition.Method of teaching the dialectical and syntactical peculiarities of Herodotus and Homer. Amounts to be read. Homeric verse. Geography, history, and antiquities. Literary treatment.-List of books to be used or con

sulted.

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(2) Practical exercises: Discussion of topics suggested by members of the course.- Practice in outlining lessons, in construction of exercises, in formation of word groups, in se lection of passages for translation at sight, in composing English passages to be translated into Greek, and in arranging facts of geography, history, and antiquities for presentation to a class.

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CHEMISTRY.

(1) Lectures (five). Topics: Methods of teaching chemical science. The history of the development of the modern methods. Fit adjustment of theoretical and experimental teaching and the value of each as modes of mental discipline. How far chemistry can profitably be taught in the secondary and pri mary schools. Best means of securing enduring results. The best and most economical ways of installing and of furnishing a school laboratory, and the precautions required to insure profitable and safe work from immature students. Suggestions on the preparation and delivery of experimental lectures. The best system of teaching the three main branches of elementary chemistry, viz: General descrip tive chemistry, mineralogy, or the natural history aspect of chemistry, and qualitative chemical analysis.

(2) Additional exercises: In order to gain a competent knowledge of class-room and laboratory methods of teaching chemistry, the student will find it essential to take such of the following courses as he has not already studied: Chemistry, A, B, C. 1 and 3. (See the general announcement of the courses of instruction provided by the faculty for 1891-92)

The courses at Harvard are "adapted to the purposes of teachers and of persons intending to become teachers," not so with the curriculum of the department of education of Clarke University. At the latter institution the work in pedagogy is primarily shaped to meet the special needs of two classes, one composed of those desiring to qualify themselves for professorships of pedagogy in universities, colleges, or normal schools, the other class composed of those who intend to become superintendents of State or city systems of education or wish to fit for other administrative positions." In following out this programme President Hall has constructed a curriculum that is quite an innovation. This curriculum falls, it would seem, under four heads-comparative pedagogy (if that term may be used to connotate the description and comparison of foreign systems of education), the social effects of higher education, the effect of the artificial or intellectual development of the child upon his natural or physical development, and special pedagogy, beginning with the three R's. The courses in neurology, experimental psychology, anthropology, and practical ethics (criminalogy, pauperism, and defectives) are open to the students.

Certificates of proficiency are given on completion of the course at both universities, whose course has been described, but at the University of Iowa something more than a testimonial of proficiency is conferred. After two years of successful teaching graduates of the university who have taken a full course in pedagogy may obtain the degree of Bachelor of Didactics. The course in pedagogy of this university-fully described in Circular of Information No. 8, 1891is composed of three sections, known as history of education (fall term), educational science and systems (winter term), and school management and exemplification of methods of instruction (spring term). During the week preceding annual commencement the State board of education holds an examination at the university for the State certificate.

The teachers' department of the University of Tennessee has been organized to aid in educating teachers for the public and private schools of the State, but especially to give this class of public-school teachers an opportunity to secure a better education. "The course is in no sense a normal department. Our (Tennessee) teachers have already, in the various normal schools, college, and institutes, sufficient opportunty for that kind of training if they want it.. The purpose of the university is to advance knowledge, and the object of this course is to stimulate its students to seek a complete, liberal education, and it is hoped that many of them will take a full college and university course. A due proportion of professional training is provided as a part of their education, but in every thing the thorough development of the man in all his powers will be the object aimed at, and not merely his training to perform a few professional pro

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