hundred or a thousand years ago, and the civilizing influence of man is not able to effect a material change in them. So we may say that the conception of animal ethics is stationary as contrasted with the progressive conception of ethics in man. We can see in the perpetuation of the manifold varieties of living things interesting examples of the subservience of certain definite structures in order that others may increase and do what is recognized as a greater work. Attention has already been directed to the manner of reproduction in simple plants and animals, where the whole organism divides into two equal parts. As we pass from the lower to the more complex individual we note the apparent care taken that the cells which are to continue the race shall be in sufficient numbers to warrant that some at least shall mature. In most organisms there are produced thousands of cells where but one develops, the production of which requires a vast amount of energy -sometimes involving the whole life of the parent. In the lower animals this is not unusual, and while in the higher but frequently considered yet almost as true. Two illustrations will make this clearer. In the colony of the honey bee there are three individuals; the queen, who presides over the colony and lays all of the eggs; the workers, who gather the pollen and nectar, and the drones. The queen mates but once during life and with a single drone. As a result of the mating the drone dies, so that for every colony of bees a drone has given his life. The various species of salmon were probably once inhabitants of our fresh waters but now spend all but the breeding season in the ocean. As this time approaches, while swimming about near the shore they come into the cooler fresh water, which seems to attract them, and they follow the stream inland often several hundred miles, leaping falls, and become exhausted in attempting to reach the cool head waters which, once found, receive their eggs and milt. The parents die after having undergone this magnificent struggle. parasites the sacrifice of the parts of the body is ried so far that extreme degeneration results. In one of the marine crabs there is found a very strange parasite. It does not possess any appendages, sense organs, digestive tube, or structures, the possession of which seems necessary to make life worth living

But in certain occasionally car

to an animal. Its shapeless masses like roots grow all thought the body of the crab. The most of this parasite is composed of reproductive tissue nourished directly by the juices of the crab. When the eggs develop the resulting larva has sense organs, a nervous and digestive system, and locomotory organs. This free swimming individual bores its way into the body of the crab and leaves these organs on the outside to drop off and disappear. In the study of a simple plant or animal we are impressed by the large number of things that it can do, such as securing food, protecting itself, responding to changes in its environment, reproducing its kind, and all of this without possessing any special structures to do the one or the other of these necessary functions. If we take an organism of a slightly more complex type the first characteristic that attracts our notice is that there are definite structures which have a given work. If a tree is examined, it is found that there are roots, a stem, branches, and leaves, and so specialized has become the work of each that the tree dies if deprived of any one set of organs, nor can these be interchanged. When the dead leaf is studied the veins are found to be hard and acting as a support to the delicate structure of the leaf. The stem and roots are mostly hard and woody tissue. Now, if we examine the growing end of the root or stem, it is soft and generalized in character, but as soon as it becomes hard certain definite tissues are evident. In this change there has occurred an interesting transformation. The growing tip was nearly all composed of living cells, the old hard stem or root is nearly all composed of dead cells. In order that the tree may have strength to withstand the storm and wind many cells become transformed into wood, and in so doing are no longer living. They give up their individuality, or living identity, for the good of the whole tree. This fact becomes more apparent when a cross section of a tree is examined and we realize that only the narrow layer just under the bark is alive.

The human body is to be considered as a unit and there is a marvelous perfection in each set of organs with their respective functions. How did it happen? It is an easy matter to show how the muscles and bones have developed from generalized cells.

These are the two mechanical tissues. The bones simply give shape and protection while the muscles enable us to move. Certainly humble duties are these—yet how necessary. The digestive system, which so transforms the food that it can be taken into the body by the circulating structures, does work absolutely necessary but humble in the eyes of the world. But there is a conspicuous tissue in our bodies which coördinates and presides over all the others. Should the nerves governing the digestive tract be severed no work could be done by these organs. We would not know when we were hungry, and we would, consequently, starve. A little blow on the head, resulting in the accumulation of a clot of blood on the brain, and we may be burned or have a leg amputated without feeling the process. The nerve cells are the structures with which all of the attributes of the mind are associated, yet in their development in any animal there is a time when muscle, bone, and nerve cell are indistinguishable. In the adult all of the organs are subservient to the nerve cells. The simple work of each of these organs makes possible the magnificent work of the whole organism. In some mysterious fashion the sensitiveness to the beautiful, the longings of the soul and the hope of immortality are present in these nerve cells-the possibilities for great wrong or infinite good are associated with their activities; and it is a sad commentary that the things that most inhibit the fullest activity of these marvelous cells are a product of civilization. On the other hand, many men are so caring for and training these same cells that they are able to do a greater and more varied work than ever before in the history of the world.

The living universe is made possible by the presence of an indefinable force which many biologists regard as of divine origin. The study of biology, therefore, must necessarily give a more sympathetic attitude toward God; and a full, or even a partial knowledge of the various ways in which organisms live should enlarge the ability to solve the problems, of God in nature and God in man; for each explains the other and the two are in perfect harmony.

W. M. Smallwood,

ART. XI.-GROWTH OF SUFFRAGE

WITH the admission of the Territory of Oklahoma to statehood a critical survey of the rise of the privilege of suffrage in the United States is especially fitting. Suffrage is the participation of the people in representative government. The elective franchise is not a natural right, but an adventitious, alienable privilege whose basis rests in the right of the people to the voice in the government. Suffrage is representative: the family, not the individual, is the unit of society. Its end and limitation are the welfare and safety of the state. It is a safe rule to raise the would-be voter rather than to lower the elective franchise. The state, too, has rights.

The English colonists who settled at Jamestown and Plymouth came with the rights of Englishmen. Suffrage was then very limited in England. When occasion offered they instituted just such a government as Englishmen of the seventeenth century would naturally create out of past experience and present necessity, of and for themselves. Freed from ultraconservatism, the colonists widened the franchise but stopped far short of modern democratic ideas. However, there were popular elections of some sort in each of the colonies from the earliest date down to the Revolution. Virginia led in this representative government-her first "House of Burgesses" assembled July 30, 1619. All were Englishmen. The qualifications for electors were varied and indefinite. There were peculiar tests for each colony. Changes in the requirements were frequent. During this epoch seven qualifications for voters are met with. Following English precedent, property was the weightiest test, with religion a close second. Residence was more important than citizenship. After 1700 race qualifications appeared among the southern colonies. Virginia alone mentioned sex. The age test was finally fixed at twenty-one years. There were no efforts at uniformity. In New England the chief qualification was religious, elsewhere property. With separation from England came little change for the colonies severally. The central government under the "Articles of Con

federation" interfered with the commonwealths as little as possible-which was not at all. Article V provided that delegates should be "appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each state [commonwealth] should direct." When the Constitution was framed each commonwealth had the right to regulate suffrage. During the "Constitutional Convention" a national suffrage plan received the vote of but one commonwealth (Delaware). Hence the Constitution declares that the franchise for the election of the members of the House of Representatives shall in every commonwealth be the same as for the "most numerous branch of the state [commonwealth] legislature" (Art. I, Sec. 2). Only in the last amendment does the Constitution trench on the commonwealth right to regulate suffrage. The term "citizen❞ was chosen in 1787 because it was vague. No definition was attempted. Until the XIVth Amendment one was first a citizen of a commonwealth. One thing was certain: the privilege of suffrage was not coextensive with citizenship. During this formative period of the nation few changes were made in the qualifications for electors. Property continued to be the chief test, while that of religion became obsolete—though such a qualification was still required for office in eleven commonwealths. Citizenship was not mentioned. Except in New Hampshire, where nonresident property holders voted, a definite period of residence was required. Race feeling was not acute, for negroes voted. Generally only males were electors, though a few women "inhabitants" voted in New Jersey. On the whole the privilege of suffrage was very limited-less than one in thirty were electors. "Property, not men, voted." After the War of 1812 was the birth of national consciousness reflected in the citizenship test for suffrage. Thereafter the electorate was widened very materially, but the negro was persistently kept from the franchise. While the XIVth Amendment made the nation truly federal-defining a citizen as one "born or naturalized" in the United States-it failed signally to secure to the negro the privilege of suffrage. The "right" of women to vote and the menace of the foreign elector claimed little attention, although by 1850 there was systematic agitation for woman suffrage and a fast rising tide of immigration.