21. SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Germany-Classical and modern high schools. The facts presented here are gleaned from secondary schools in Prussia only; but the lessons they seem to teach are applicable to other states of Germany, though there are fewer classical and more modern high schools in southern Germany, notable in Würtemberg and Baden.

On February 1, 1890, more than 100 classical high schools (secondary schools) of Prussia' had in their lowest grades less than 25 pupils each, or an average of 18. Of these 20 had only an average of 10 pupils in the "sexta" (lowest grade). The school in Lauenburg needed a teacher for 6 sextaners," that in Münstereifel 1 for 7, those in Hadamar and Rheinbach 1 for 8, those in Gentheim and Marue 1 for 9, those in Attendorn, Dramburg, Otterndorf, and Riethburg, and other towns 1 for 10 pupils. All these schools are classical high schools or gymnasia, in which the ancient languages claim the lion's share of time and energy. A different picture is presented when we look at the high schools without Latin. Where all circumstances are equal, that is to say, where the number of inhabitants and the industrial, professional, artistic, and commercial pursuits of the people are about equal, we find that the classical school has an almost empty 66 sexta," while that of the modern school without Latin is overcrowded.

A comparison of a few cities may prove this. Take, for example, the high schools of Lüdenscheid and Bockenheim. In these cities of equal size and similar conditions of life, we find that Lüdenscheid, with 15,000 inhabitants, has only 17 pupils in the lowest grade of its gymnasium, the classical high-school, while Bockenheim, with 17,500 inhabitants, does not show the relative number 20, but 58 pupils in the lowest grade; but then its high school is one without Latin. Even in cities that have both kinds of schools, the same fact may be observed. Emden, for instance, has 20 pupils in the lowest grade of its gymnasium, and 34 in that of the modern school without Latin, which school is only a few years old.

Precisely the same facts are noticed in larger cities, and they prove most convincingly that though the people turn away from the classical languages, they do not mean to desert higher education. Merseburg, for instance, has 16,800 inhabitants, but only 23 pupils in the lowest grade of its classical high school. But annually 190 boys in that city reach the age of nine years, hence might enter the high school (the course of which covers the years from nine to eighteen), but 167 of them do not. It is reasonable to suppose that many of them would do so if a higher school without Latin was founded. Compare this with Emden. This city has only 14,000 inhabitants, but 56 pupils in the lowest grade of its high school without Latin, or about one-third of the boys of that age in that one year.

Here is another instance: Memel has 18,800 inhabitants and only 23 pupils in "sexta" of the high school, which is a classical one. How many of such pupils it might have may be seen from Graudenz, which has 17,300 inhabitants but 113 pupils in the lowest grade of its high school without Latin. Görlitz has 55,600 inhabitants and only one high school, a classical one. It has 55 "sextaners," while Potsdam, with 51,000 inhabitants and a modern high school, has 175 "sextaners."

How little the gymnasia answer the demands of modern life is seen from the way the people are deserting them. The gymnasium at Memel had in 1882 49, in 1890 it has 23; that at Friedberg had in 1882 35, in 1890 it has 18; that at Gumbinnen had in 1882 40, in 1890 it has 17; that at Havelberg had in 1882 46, in 1890 it has 19; that at Marne had in 1882 25, in 1890 it has 9: that at Oldesloe had in 1882 30, in 1890 it has 16 pupils in the lowest grade. Since the number of inhabitants of these towns has not decreased, but, on the contrary, increased during the eight years mentioned, it is plain that the cause is to be sought in the schools and the trend of the time. "If these towns had high schools without Latin more boys would aspire to a higher education," says the Zeitung für das Höhere Unterrichtswesen. Despite the facts set forth, the Government of Prussia aids the establishment of new classical high schools and discourages that of modern schools. This is seen from the fact that during the school year 1889-'90 eleven new classical schools have been opened and only one modern high school with Latin." (Ztg. f. d. höh. Unterrichtswesen.)

England. We think that the time has come when the state might usefully take some degree of responsibility for the entire educational system of the coun try. What the degree should be will necessarily be a matter for discussion

1 Prussia has about 300 classical high schools gymnasia.

whenever action is taken; but we entirely fail to see why only one class of schools should have the advantage of Government examination and encouragement. There is no reason to doubt that most of the secondary schools of the country are doing excellent work; but there are also some which might do far better work than they are now doing, and many which provide an education but ill-fitted for the necessities of the day. In addition to this, education in the middle and higher class schools is terribly expensive, and we do not at all see why one section of the community should have free education provided for their children while all the other sections, which find most of the money, get no benefit whatever. Our present educational system is entirely a class system. It benefits one class only; but it is easy to see that there are great numbers of people, such as professional men, tradesmen, farmers, and persons of small independent means, who want help in the education of their children much more than the well-paid artisan or mechanic. The classes we have named find a large portion of the money now spent upon elementary schools, which are of no use to them, and paying so heavily as they do for the benefit of other people, they are entitled to ask for a little advantage to themselves. We may rely upon it also that they will be certain to get an advantage if they ask for it with sufficient persistency." (Nott. Daily Guardian.)

France.-M. Dupuy, in his financial report to the chamber on public instruction (France), set forth as follows the chief causes of the decline of colleges and lycées: (1) The increase in the cost of board and teaching; (2) the incessant change of text-books, and the expenses thereby imposed upon parents; (3) the constant change in the programmes and the method of teaching; (4) the general state of instability in these institutions, which causes discouragement among the teachers. But to these causes must be added another not mentioned in the report, namely, a growing dislike of the French parent for the whole system of barrack-like education in the secondary schools of France.

Germany. In the Kingdom of Prussia the classical high schools (gymnasia) are so well patronized that there is one student of a classical high school to every 384 inhabitants of the entire population. How greatly favored these schools are generally may be seen from the following list of cities in which the ratio of population is less than 100: Kiel has 1 student to every 99 inhabitants; Halberstadt, 1 to 81; Munster, 1 to 63; Treves, 1 to 62; Stolp, 1 to 60; Hildesheim, 1 to 58; Tilsit, 1 to 55; Ratibor, 1 to 47; Murbury, 1 to 40; Padeborn, 1 to 29; Freienwalde, 1 to 27; Ostrowo, 1 to 24; Marienwerder, 1 to 21. The number of university students has increased in entire Germany from 17,631 in 1869 to 34,118 in 1888. While the ratio of increase in the population during the same period was only 20 per cent, that of the number of students was 100 per cent. (Paed. Ztg.)

The Berlin city council sympathizes in the feeling against the abolition of the realgymnasium, and has presented a petition on the subject. They point out that the 11 gymnasia in Berlin were attended by 5,569 pupils in December, 1890, the 7 realgymnasium by 3,951. Consequently, the realgymnasium has on an average 58 pupils more than a gymnasium. This number is all the more remarkable when all the attractions and privileges of the gymnasium are taken into consideration. Again, the decrease in numbers in the year was in the gymnasium 219, and in the realgymnasium only 26. (This decrease is probably due to the erection of higher Burgerschulen.) Finally, it seems very probable that when the realgymnasium is abolished the gymnasium will be considered the more aristocratic school, and that the great social danger of sharply defined class schools will arise. The petition closes with this request: "To preserve the realgymna sium, and give the graduates the right to study medicine." (Allg. D. Lztg.) The mayor of Brandenburg, Herr Reuscher, has sent to the magistrates of all the 280 towns in Prussia in which only one high school exists a document in which he calls their attention to the resolutions arrived at by the school conference in Berlin of December last, and to urge upon them to join in a petition on the subject to the Emperor. "In the towns," he writes, "where the realgymnasia is called in question by the sweeping decision of the conference the city authorities have already taken steps to prevent an utter annihilation of these institutions. The numerous Prussian towns, numbering almost 300, which have only one high school have urgent need of understanding the import of the conference resolutions and of averting the danger which threatens their interests in the immediate future. Not only is the existence of the nine-class realgymnasia, the seven-class progymnasia, and prorealgymnasia threatened in these towns, but also the three upper classes are concerned, in which the number of the pupils "does not justify their existence." This, naturally enough, is very

often the case in small communities. In order to attain this end a petition has been drawn up demanding the introduction of a common six-class lower school for all kinds of schools, thus directly opposing the resolutions arrived at last December by the school reform conference. (Allg. D. Lztg.)

During the summer of 1889 the gymnasia (classical high schools) in the Prussian province of Silesia had 51 per cent Protestants, 34 per cent Catholics, 0.2 per cent other Christians, and 14.8 per cent Israelite pupils. The realgymnasia (modern high schools) had 64.4 per cent Protestant, 22.7 per cent Catholic, 0.2 per cent other Christians, and 12.7 per cent Israelite pupils. In the citizens' schools (middle schools without Latin) the number of Protestants was 71 per cent, that of the Catholics 13.6 per cent, that of other Christians 0.7 per cent, and that of Israelites 14.7 per cent. Or, taking all these high schools together, the number of Protestants was 56.5 per cent, that of the Catholics 22.8 per cent, that of other Christians 0.2 per cent, and that of Israelites 14.5 per cent. (Allg. D. Lztg.) In Germany parents are obliged to determine early whether their sons are to pursue higher studies or whether they are to limit their education to the clementary branches, for the high school has its own "feeder" (elementary classes), and rarely takes its pupils from the public elementary school. Moreover, the parents must determine before the boys have reached their eleventh year whether they are to pursue a course which will land them at the gate of the university or of a polytechnical or other professional school. Önce fairly started in their carcer, there is no return possible, except at the sacrifice of some years which they must waste in order to "adjust themselves" to the different conditions, should they or their parents determine upon a change, This inflexibility is the reason why in Germany so many "miss their natural calling." It is the effect of conditions arising from the differentiation in society. An aristocracy of birth, education, or wealth seems a necessity as long as a monarchical form of government is maintained. A monarch must needs have a pedestal, which is found in an ascending scale of society. Hence there is in Europe no such exponent of modern civilization as our common school, which is the most powerful leveler of social inequalities yet devised. While it lifts the lower strata of society, it also drags downward those standing on an elevation; and it is quite immaterial whether this elevation be a money bag, or a pedestal of culture, or a genealogical tree. (Z. R. K. in the Teacher.) Dr. Viereck, of Berlin, maintains that the educated proletariat is due to the excessive privileges granted to the gymnasiums. He says, "The conclusion is irresistible that the root of the evil is to be found in our scholastic system, which treats the secondary school merely as a step in preparation for the university. The development of political and commercial conditions has had an unmistakable influence in greatly increasing the number of students preparing for a professional career. The force of competition has brought about a more efficient mental training among men of business; for those possessing it are able to suc ceed where those without it fail. All these influences have worked together to send more students than ever before to the secondary schools. And here lies the difficulty. The students, as a rule, do not select the kind of secondary schools best suited to their wants, but the gymnasium, because of the marked privileges conferred by law upon its graduates. As a result every profession is overcrowded, and thousands of highly educated young men are unable to earn a decent living.

It has finally been decided that the graduates of the Oberrealschulen of Prussia are to be admitted to the university study of mathematics, natural science, architecture, engineering, mining, and forestry, with the prospect of obtaining posts as teachers. Moreover, they are qualified as candidates for posts in the telegraph and postal service and naval architecture and machinery. Realgymnasia receive the same privileges. The final certificate from the Bürgerschulen will qualify for admission into all civil-service posts, instead of only for the lower legal posts. The right to the one-year military service will be so arranged that for the pupils of the nine-year as well as for the seven-year institutions the privilege is discontinued of obtaining the right through mere promotion into the Obersecunda without examination. In the future an examination conducted by a commissioner of the government will be held at the end of a six years' course, and the certificate for the one year's service will depend on this examination. (Lond. Ed. Times).

SECULAR SUNDAY SCHOOLS.

Germany.-Sunday schools (nonreligious) are found all over Germany (notably in Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Würtemburg), Austria, and Switzerland. Their purpose is either (1) to give pupils who have left the elementary school an ad

vanced grade of elementary instruction; also, in certain cases, to mend that which was neglected by absence from day schools, in cases of sickness, or otherwise; or (2) to offer technical instruction ad hoc; that is, for special purposes, such as preparation for trades, agricultural, horticultural, and commercial pursuits, domestic economy (for girls). The character of these schools varies in accordance with the varying industrial and economic conditions of the towns. While in the Erzgebirge, in Saxony, straw-weaving and metal work are taught, in Switzerland it is clockmaking and designing, while in Dresden and Leipsic, again, schools of languages for hotel waiters, and in Berlin commercial Sunday schools are established.

Both kinds of schools are called "fortbildungs-schulen " (continuation schools), really postgraduate courses of the "volks-schule." They are partly evening schools, partly Sunday schools. The statistical sources at hand fail to show how many of these schools are open on Sunday. Bits of information, however, may be welcome.

Prussia.-The Handwerker-Schule in Berlin had 16 Sunday classes in 1884. The industrial art schools (schools of design) in Rhenish Prussia and other provinces are all open on Sunday from 8 a. m. till noon, as I know from personal inspection. Gewerbe-museums (museums of industrial art). Also fine art museums are open on Sunday.

Saxony. This is the only country from which exact, though meager, data are at hand, to wit: Trade schools open on Sunday, 13 out of 65. Those not open on Sunday for regular instruction have occasional lectures on Sunday. Technical continuation schools open on Sunday, 22 out of 28. Agricultural schools ditto, 2 out of 9. Commercial schools ditto, 1 out of 32. Many private Sunday schools not accounted for. While these may not be considered formidable numbers, it must be understood that the elementary continuation schools (postgraduate courses) are not enumerated because they belong to the regular day-school system and have the same teachers who teach in day schools.

Austria (Cisleithania) had in 1889 122,968 pupils and 8,678 teachers in technical, trade, professional, and other special schools, but the official reports fail to state which are open on Sunday. As a matter of fact I know that many utilize the Sunday morning either for regular instruction or for lectures.

Württemberg. The 173 continuation schools in Württemberg had in 1890 12,271 pupils in arithmetic, 8,459 pupils in language and composition, 2,935 pupils in bookkeeping, 2,921 pupils in calligraphy, 10,705 pupils in freehand drawing, 4,531 pupils in geometrical drawing, 6,316 pupils in technical drawing; namely, 1,627 woodwork, 857 metal work, 3,410 various trades, 326 industrial art, 126 lettering. A great number of these are apprentices and study on Sunday. The city of Stuttgart alone has a Sunday technical school, with 27 teachers and 334 pupils (1890).

Hungary.-(Transleithania) had in 1889 62,220 pupils and 2,449 teachers in similar schools. Same remark regarding Sunday.

Switzerland. Here the continuation schools and courses are attended by 34,817 pupils, partly regular Army recruits. Time not stated, but it is will known in Europe that Switzerland is famous for its secular Sunday schools, being a poor country.

Since most of the technical and elementary continuation schools (both evening and Sunday schools) are supported by societies, trades unions, and only rarely subsidized by the state, centralized official statements as to their attendance and course of study are wanting. (L. R. K.)

23.-SPECIAL SCHOOLS.

Switzerland.-The Royal University at Geneva is to open a school for practical training of travelers, giving instruction in geography, geology, botany, geodesy, and other subjects required to fit them to make scientific observations and intelligently form collections of natural objects in distant lands. Similar work was undertaken some years ago by the Royal Geographical Society of London and the Berlin Geographical Society, and arrangements are also provided in Paris for giving such instruction.

Germany.-A number of the professors in the technical universities in Prussia have published a counter declaration to the one issued on December 1, 1890, that the course of study in a gymnasium or classical high school was not a fitting preparation for the studies of a technical university. The supporters of the counter declaration are of the opinion that the Realschulen do not fit the pupils any better than the gymnasia for the technical schools, and that when certain

defects are removed both kinds of schools will be on a level. Among the supporters of this declaration are Profs. Müller, Jürgens, Damert, and Lüders, in Aachen; Jacobsthal, Dobbert, Schäfer, Hauck, and Wintergarten, in Berlin; Hase, Köhler, Stier, and Backhausen, in Hanover.

Industrial Schools in Europe.-In almost all of the manufacturing towns of Europe during the last half century schools have been opened for apprentices in the industrial arts. In Russia there are no less than 1,200 of these schools with 20,000 pupils. Among justly celebrated preparatory schools are found the Ambats school at Amsterdam, the technical school of Birmingham, Heriot's Hospital of Edinburg, and the St. Luc schools of Belgium. All agree that industrial education can only be really given in a workshop where teachers will be able to instruct pupils by means of practical demonstration and by sketches of design. At Birmingham and Edinburg pupils are admitted to technical schools, which are considered merely as a sort of primary industrial school, where very fine chemical and physical laboratories are at their disposal and in which they acquire a certain practice in preparation for industrial work. The general result is that at the end of their studies the pupils are engaged by industrial superintendents as future apprentices.

In Ireland there is another kind of preparatory schools, to which are admitted only children who have lost both parents, and who are destined for domestic or rural professions. They here receive primary instruction, some knowledge of science and of art, and a sufficiently complete manual training. These institutions combine the two characters of schools and asylums. Beside the primary schools there is a superior kind called industrial and technical. These exist for the object of giving to apprentices and workmen some knowledge of science and art, which will increase the financial value of their work. This is the complete theory and practice of the industrial workshop. Belgium has founded 36 industrial schools, in which are given every evening and on Sundays the elements of a scientific and artistic knowledge corresponding to the profession of those who frequent them. The number attending exceeds 25,000.

In both England and Belgium the number of pupils in proportion to the population is about the same; that is, 4.2 for each 1,000. But instruction in the United Kingdom is better than anywhere else; it has a more scientific and practical character on account of the well-equipped laboratories and workshops, which are placed at the disposition of the pupils. In Holland there are 32 industrial schools and 25 professional schools, attended by about 7,000 pupils. The proportion of these is about 2 to every 1,000; but Holland, so cut up by canals, and with the sea continually breaking bounds, is rather a maritime than a manufacturing nation, so that there is nothing surprising in this proportion as compared with that of Belgium. Switzerland has no less than 87 schools, giving to apprentices and workmen professional instruction. The pupils number 8,000. There are others said to be highly developed, where drawing is a branch of instruction. Thus, in one of the poorest cantons, that of Appenzell, institutions of that class are met in every community, and the attendance is as obligatory as the snows will permit. The industrial population of the cantons is 200,000 persons in a total of 2,846,000 inhabitants, and this balances that of Belgium, where metallurgic and other manufactures are carried to a high point of development.

In Denmark, a country of 2,096,467 inhabitants, there are 77 schools for professional instruction of workmen with more than 6,000 pupils. The technical school of Copenhagen alone numbers no less than 2,000. In Sweden there are 28 industrial schools; that of Stockholm has 800 pupils, more than one-half per cent of the population of the town. Italy, which in 1885 had 136 industrial and art schools, with 16,274 pupils, has since then made great progress; but she is suffering, as England sometimes suffers, from an excess of manufactured articles, and these must be disposed of at any price in order to avoid a ruinous embarrassment. The school at Hamburg, under the direction of Marius Vachon, is the best institution in Germany, both on account of the principles which inspired its creation and the methods of instruction. In entering there, if the pupil is neither an apprentice nor workman he must choose a trade; these two classes of pupils constitute the principal number of the school population.

A law of the Hamburg senate imposes on all industrial superintendents the duty of sending their apprentices to this school for six hours every week. They are thus enabled to attend during three, four, or even five years, according to their disposition and abilities. The first part of the first year is exclusively devoted to the study of the primary elements of drawing. All drawings must be made from nature. After that comes instruction from professional designs. As