per annum. Of assistant male teachers, there were 216 who drew salaries rang ́ing from $300 to $650, and averaging $465, and whose ages ranged from 20 to 59only 6, however, being above 44 years. The assistant female teachers numbered 335, and the average scale of salary was from $250 to $450. Of these only 25 were over 40 years of age, the largest class being that between 25 and 29 years. Although, as a general rule, the rate of salary increases with age, that rule is not invariable. Among the female assistants the highest average salary is between. the ages of 40 and 44, in which class the average is $455; and amongst male assistants the same class stands highest, with an average salary of $635. (Schoolmaster.)

England.-"It is indisputable," says the Birmingham Daily Gazette, "that a large percentage of school masters and mistresses would not be able to put by even a shilling a week without feeling the loss of it. In villages the salaries of mistresses range from $175 to $300 a year, and of masters from $200 to $350. It is by no means uncommon to find that on these earnings a man is keeping a wife and family, and, as is well known, it would be greatly to his disadvantage not to keep up the appearance of being fairly well off. To compel these people to make provision for old age is only to increase their present difficulties, and if any such scheme was adopted which required a pension premium, its operation would have to be limited to those cases in which fair salaries are paid. Take them altogether, teachers are not a particularly provident class, and considering that they are aware that old age and infirmity must disqualify them from performing their duties, it is remarkable that they so seldon think of the future and prepare to meet emergencies."

The leading exponent of the opinion of the Church of England has been turning to the subject of paying pensions to elementary teachers, and declares itself in favor of government interference. If one could "put back the clock" just 45 years to the time when licensed teachers were just being called into being, it would be easy, in the opinion of many, to say that cach licensed teacher should pay $10 a year into a pension fund, to be met by a similar sum out of the Parlia mentary grant, and thus secure a valuable sum, payable on death, should that event cecur before the teacher has reached the age of (5, and an income of $200 a year forever afterward. And if some such rule had been adopted our English elementary teachers would now all of them be in the position of their fellowworkers in almost every continental European country, where, as Mr. Arnold testified, pension schemes for primary teachers are practically universal.

It is, of course, perfectly possible for Parliament (adds the Guardian) to enact such a rule in the case of all persons who in future shall join the ranks of the teaching profession. But what in the mean while is to be done with the 43,500 existing teachers for whom no such rule was made when it was possible for them to observe it? In the interest of education as well as humanity we plead for an early consideration of this question. Teachers who go about their tasks with a feeling of security as to the future will do infinitely better in their trying work than those for whom the future is a blank, unrelieved by any prospect but that of a cheerless old age in the workhouse. If the state assumed the whole responsibility for finding pensions at the age of 65 (still further contends the Guardian) for every licensed teacher, inasmuch as with the present total of 43,500 teachers there would probably never be more than about 6,000 over 65 years of age, the whole cost of pensioning those persons off at $200 a year would be less than a quarter of a million pounds. And what is a quarter of a million pounds (in this case 6,000 × 200 $1,200,000) for the worn-out teachers by the side of the £2,000,000 a year with which Parliament has just endowed the parents of elementary scholars?

18.-PSYCHOLOGY.

Synopsis of "Historical Sketch of the Idea of Apperception."—(1) Leibniz, who first used the term "apperception" gives it the significance of consciousness or distinct, conscious conceiving, coupled with remembrance, in contradistinction to weak perceptions which make impressions on the senses, but not in consciousness; and again he defines it as an act of taking hold of the contents of a concept by arbitrary attention or as a reflexive cognition of our inner conditions, or, in short, as self-observation. Apperception with Leibniz has the characteristic of spontaneity, only dependent upon the determinative influence of the existing-i. e, accumulated-contents of the soul.

(2) Kant finds that the sense impressions and inner emotional experiences offer the raw formless material of cognitions. With the aid of imagination these cog

nitions are fitted into forms of space and time already existing in the soul. But in order that they may obtain the significance of concepts, certain innate pure notions of the understanding are added so as to connect them. He assumes the existence of certain categories grouped under the heads of quantity, quality, relation, and modality. As he assumes two sources of knowledge, (1) sensual and emotional experience which offer the material, and (2) our s f-active interior which molds the material into forms, so he assumes two faculties corresponding with these sources: (1) the faculty to receive impressions, (2) the faculty to call forth representations. The former is termed "receptivity of the senses," the latter "spontaneity of the understanding." But previous to a'l this are, "a priori" the pure concepts of space and time, as well as the pure notions of the understanding which we add to the experience as something inborn. This spontaneous activity, which combines in self-consciousness the various impressions entering through the senses, is called "apperception.". He also calls it “selfconsciousness."

(3) Herbart thinks that every perception entering consciousness through the senses acts upon the concepts present as an irritant or stimulant, pressing back everything contrary to it and attracting all similar concepts. All concepts in consciousness are grouped, and a new perception induces new conditions among them, i. e., fusing or arresting a fusion of concepts. It is like a light casting its shine all around upon the existing mass of concepts. The new percept in the center at first has a controlling influence, and attracts similar and repels dis similar concepts. It joins those with which it establishes relation and is assimilated by them. At times it is so powerful that it changes the complexion of the already accumulated group of concepts which it joins. This assimilation of the new matter by concepts already existing is apperception, and hence Herbart finds no spontaneity in it. Even the categories (see Kant) are to him results of adjustment between the simple concepts and groups of related concepts. Searching for the conditions of apperception, he recognized and emphasized the importance of that residue or store of concepts acquired in the course of life; that is, its importance for the acquisition of new impressions and experiences. With that the definition of apperception as a resultant of gradual development of the mind is given.

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(4) Lazarus claims that in the process of apperception two stages must be distinguished that of action and reaction. The soul may react upon sense impressions in two ways: first, according to its original nature, then according to the nature acquired by its previous activity. In the former case the result is perception, in the latter apperception. Every perception is also an appercep tion; that is, a reaction of the soul filled more or less with the contents of former processes (concepts). The soul, as a sensible being, perceives according to its original nature, and it apperceives according to the elements acquired through earlier actions. An apperception is not added to complete a perception, but perception is formed under the assisting and essentially determinative influence of apperception. Hence, generally speaking, apperception may be considered as a reaction of the soul (filled with contents of former action) against outer and inner perception. He also calls attention to the importance of unconscious perception, as well as that of feelings and tendencies, moods and volition. (5) Steinthal sees in apperception a result rather than an action. The new percept entering consciousness through the senses meets masses of concepts and thereby cognition is generated (that is apperception takes place). The new percept seeks, as it were, memory images of the same or similar objects of observation, being interpreted by them, measured, and put in rank and file; to speak figuratively. Like other philosophers he lays much stress upon the emotional action of the soul in facilitating or checking these processes of degenerating, which by him are termed apperception. The soul's contents consisting of well articulåted groups of concepts and series of thoughts react with different force. Some groups which are reproduced regularly, such as one's professional ideas, apperceive more readily. That group always apperceives which either absolutely, or only in the special case, proves the most powerful. A chief condition for the relative power of the concepts is interest which causes attention.

(6) Waitz speaks of residua, remainders, that is, aftereffects of perceptions in the soul by which all subsequent conditions of the soul are modified. In earliest childhood a confused mass caused by simultaneousness of different impressions, apperceives all separate sense impressions; but in later years no pure and isolated perception can take place because the interior is always preoccupied by a greater number of remainders of previous processes with which the new perception has to make terms.

(7) Wundt, using a simile, says: The concepts which at a given moment exist in consciousness differ with regard to their distinctness. This fact may be compared with a similar phenomenon observed in the act of seeing. The pictures of outer objects which are formed on the retina are most distinct at the point called the focus. Their clearness diminishes more and more the farther away they are from that point. Taking consciousness as an inner seeing it may be said that all concepts present at one moment are within the field of vision, while only one is in the focus of consciousness. The entrance of an image into the field of vision he defines as perception; its entrance into the point of vision (focus) as apperception, and to bring it to that point a definite psychical action is necessary, namely this: The image being present with others in consciousness as a percept is seized upon and brought to greater clearness by attention. But attention is an act of the will. Hence, apperception is an act of volition, a determinative action of the will upon the concepts. The will being an inborn faculty makes apperception a spontaneous action. He briefly defines apperception as conceiving activity of the mind, the sum and substance of our intellectual activity. (After Lange's "Apperception.")

19.-RELIGIOUS AND MORAL EDUCATION.

Netherlands. At the annual general meeting of elementary teachers, held this year at Sneek, in Friesland, the president made a reference to the state of primary education, as affected by the revision of the school law in 1889. The revised act provides for State aid to voluntary schools, or, as they are termed in Holland, schools with the Bible. At first the gravest fears were entertained by all the lovers of enlightenment and progress that the act would be interpreted in the narrowest sense, as has been the case with a somewhat similar change in Belgium. But thus far such apprehensions have proved groundless. The president called the new act one of pacification. It had been honestly and impartially administered by the government. There were, however, still some defects to be remedied, the principal of which was the abnormal size of the classes in some districts. When one teacher had charge of sixty children, as was too frequently the case, all talk of intelligent teaching was mere mockery. (Lond. Jl. of Ed.)

France. Several voices are being raised against the nonreligious instruction by the public elementary schools. M. Keller, formerly member for Belfort, adjures the Catholics to come to the rescue, and open schools in opposition to the public schools. "The time is not far off," he writes, "when all the public schools, like the high public offices, will be in the hands of the freemasons, and when the children will receive an education no longer neutral in its character, but downright bad in its tendency." He advocates schools of a more pronounced religious character, in which religious instruction shall have the first place, and in which all the books, classics, prize books, and recitation books included, shall bear testimony on every page to God and his wonders. No science must be taught that is not illustrated from a religious point of view. Statistics, however, do not give such a desponding account of voluntary schools. In 1878 there were 8,110; in the following year 12,426, and at present there are about 13,000 Catholic voluntary schools. (Schoolmaster.)

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At the instance of M. Causeret, a school inspector at Poitiers, the prefect of the district has lent his sanction to a plan for encouraging the moral development of children by establishing permanent records in the schools of notable acts of courage or devotion performed by pupils of the school. The proposal is universally approved. One teacher enlarges on the desire for praise existing among children, and considers that the plan will "inspire the pupils with the love of that which is good," while another affirms that the best definition of virtue is a roll of the virtuous." The promoter has decided to enlarge the original scope of his plan so as to include not only present pupils, but those old pupils who have distinguished themselves by obtaining a medal or a diploma of honor for any act of courage or devotion. It is hoped by this means to "arouse in the children and develop all those civic virtues which make the strength of armies." The children will be stimulated against the time when they are called upon to serve la patrie" by the example of those who, upon the battlefield have performed some striking deed or who have died for their country. In establishing the record of the brave the following order of procedure is laid down: (1) When the inspector reports a special act of bravery, the prefect should present a board and a book of honor to the school; (2) the young hero's name is to be written on the board and the official record of his deed, after publication in the local official journal, ED 9078

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is to be duly inscribed in the book of honor; (3) the pupils who have secured a medal or diploma for an act of bravery, or whose military service may have entitled them to the cross of the Legion of Honor or a medal shall have their names inscribed on the board; (4) the names of old pupils who have perished on the battlefield shall be carefully preserved,and, if possible, engraved on a stone or marble tablet conspicuously placed in the schoolroom. (Lon. J. of Ed.) Germany.-The Prussian minister of education has reversed the decision of a provisional council and declared that children of parents who profess no religious faith are not to be compelled to attend scripture lessons in schools, even when they receive no religious instruction in gymnastics at home. Moreover, such children are not to be refused admission to high schools and normal schools.

20. SALARIES.

England.-In England, out of 12,087 head masters, only 357 (less than 3 per cent) receive salaries of over £300 ($1,500) per year; and of 16,308 head mistresses, only 449 (less than 2.8 per cent) receive over £200 ($1,000). The average salary is £134 (about $670) for head masters and £82 ($420) for head mistresses.

Germany.-A new scale of salaries for teachers of elementary schools in Ger many has been adopted by the city government of Bremen. In the primary schools of the city the salary of a principal will be hereafter from $875 to $1,125: that of teachers from $375 to $750; the higher salary mentioned to be reached after eighteen years' service. In the country districts of the city (it must be remembered the free city of Bremen, like Hamburg and Lubeck, own a limited territory outside of the city limits, analogous to Washington and the District of Columbia) the salaries of the principals are slightly less than in the city, but those of teachers are the same as those in the city. The principal of the normal school in Bremen has $1,500, rising to $1,650 in seven years, the professors begin with $650 and reach $1,125 after twelve years.

France. The principals of boys' primary schools who formerly, that is, before the great revival of public education, had only from $500 to $700 annually, now have from 8820 to $1,060. The principals of girls' primary, who formerly had from $160 to $710, now have $580 to $910. The male teachers, who had formerly had salaries ranging from $340 to $480, have now from $520 to $720. The female teachers, who had formerly salaries ranging from $340 to $420, now have from $380 to $620. The city appropriation for 1889 for current school expenses was $4,944,881, while in 1871 it was only $1,920,179; and during the years 1871 and 1887 the city paid $17,000,000 for the erection and remodeling of school buildings. (Allg. Dr. Lztg.)

Spain. The library of Madrid has published a general view of the delays in the payment of Spanish teachers. A large number have not seen for twenty years a third or a half of their salary. More than 25,000 teachers have not received their regular payments. In all, the sum due to teachers amounts to 3,055,033 pecetas, or considerably over $700,000. A teacher in Benjarin, Gre nada, was owed 2,124 pecetas, but as he could not get any money he took to selling matches, while his wife and daughters sought positions as domestics. Many teachers have been obliged to receive public charity. Many have closed their schools, not having the strength to continue their work. A teacher in Torviczon, to whom the commune owed 6,000 pecetas, was shut out of the schoolroom because the proprietor could not get his rent. While she was able she had paid the rent, adding this to the amount due her from the Government. The report leaves one wondering if all the public spirit in Spain is confined to public school teachers. (Freie päd. Blätter.)

Germany.-The Statist. Jahrbuch für höhere Schulen states that normal school teachers are paid:

Salaries for normal school teachers for 1890–91.

It must be remembered that these are not the salaries of teachers of primary and grammar schools, but of normal and training schools. In view of that fact, Americans are apt to consider these salaries pauper wages.

In Prussia the average salary in the country is $256, in the cities $319. To these cash salaries should be added 20 per cent for rent and fuel, which are free to teachers. They either live in dwellings especially built for the accommodation of teachers or in lieu of a dwelling a supplementary payment is made; hence the salaries may be said to range between $300 and $370. Principals of buildings, of course, get more, between $100 and $$00.

In Saxony the beginning is $190. If the school has more than forty pupils the salary is raised progressively to $323. Principals receive a minimum salary varying according to the population; thus in towns with less than 5,000 inhabitants, $450: in towns of 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, $563; in towns of more than 10,000 inhabitants, $675.

In Würtemberg the scale of salaries rises from $225 to $500.

Hessia gives its teachers in the cities of less than 10,000 inhabitants from $225 to $450, and in larger cities from $300 to $550. Women get between $225 and $450.

The minimum salary in Bavaria is $200, the maximum $211, according to the size of the town. To that is added an annual increase, according to length of service, which ends when $300 per annum is reached.

In Baden the communities are divided into five classes with reference to salaries: I, 8195; II, $210; III, $240; IV, $270; V, $300. In large cities higher salaries are paid.

Here are mentioned a few cities of Germany with two columns, showing minimum and maximum salaries of teachers (not principals) of elementary schools:

Karlsruhe, Duisburg, Osnabrück, Freiburg (in Baden), and several other cities pay like Brunswick. Others, notably the wealthier and larger cities, like Hamburg, Frankfürt, and Berlin, treat the teachers better. The minimum in Frankfurt is $430; in Berlin, $390; the maximum in Frankfürt is $850; in Berlin, $810. The rectors or principals in Berlin get from $795 to $971. In Frankfurt the principals are all on a level with regard to salaries, they receive $1,050. Dresden pays to teachers $484; to principals, $1,200. To all these sums about 20 per cent should be added for rent and fuel.

Basil averages $643; Zurich, $446; Geneva, $438; Neuchâtel, $388; Wallis, $369; Schaffhausen, $350; Glarus, $322; some cantons make additional payments. In Belgium, minimum for teachers $240, assistants $200.

Law fixes the minimum for principals in Netherlands at $294, for teachers at $252, for assistants $169.

Salaries rise in Sweden from $140 to $168 within five years of scrvice. In some localities teachers get $380.

The lowest salary in Norway is $185, the highest $400.

The lowest in Denmark is $224, the average is $280, in some localities $392 is paid.

Salaries in Grecce are $16, $20, or $28 per month, independent of an annual sum of from 20 cents to $1 per capita of pupils.

In Turkey a monthly salary of $37 if licensed, but only $22 if without diploma. Italy brings us back to low averages: $112 and $244, with an increase of 10 per cent every six years.

In Spain salaries range according to population: $111 is the minimum, $370 the maximum.

In Russia the average salary is $97 per annum.

Minimum salary in Portugal is $113 per annum and an addition for regular attendance. After the first six years an increase of 25 per cent of the minimum salary is given.

In England, of 15,243 male teachers only 211 had the minimum salary of $250. The others ranged between $250 and $1,500. Of 22,434 women 1,394 had the minimum of $200. The others ranged between $200 and $1,000.

In Scotland and Ireland substantially the same salaries are paid to teachers which are paid in England.

Of course the fact must be considered that the purchasing power of money is greater in Europe than with us, but even with due regard to that a teacher's salary may be said to be low in Europe. (Revue Pedagogique.)