'It is the German elementary school work by which the English should learn how salutary is the supervision of schools by the state, and how they should especially reform their middle-class or secondary schools."

Guatemala.--Primary education in Guatemala is obligatory, maintained by the state, free and secular. The sum spent on education in 1887-'88 (ending June 30) was $525,625, of which $253,927 were for primary education. In 1887 there were 93,627 children of school age. At the end of 1889 there were, according to official statements, 1,327 primary schools of all kinds, attended by 47,907 pupils, and 66 higher schools, with 3,677 pupils. There were in addition 7 high and normal schools, with 1,185 pupils (315 females).

Montenegro.-Schools for elementary education in Montenegro are supported by Government; education is compulsory and free; there are (1889) 70 elementary schools, with 3,000 male and 300 female pupils. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium or college for boys at Cettinje, and a girls' high school maintained at the charge of the Empress of Russia.

Hawaii.-The Kingdom of Hawaii (comprising eight large productive and thirteen small desolate islands), with 80,000 inhabitants, is of special importance for commercial intercourse between North America and East Asia. It is well known that the recently deceased King Kalakaua, in 1881, made an extensive tour through America and Europe. European institutions and therewith Christianity were introduced in Hawaii at the beginning of our century and special attention was given to education. The United States exert the greatest influence upon the administration of this Kingdom and covertly aim at the protectorate over the Kingdom. Its annexation on the part of the United States is only a question of time.

From the main island public education was diffused over the whole Kingdom in a comparatively short time. At the beginning of the second decade of our century the chieftain and his most distinguished subjects diligently studied reading and writing. This awakened everywhere the desire to learn these wonderful arts. The most able men among the adult students were sent as teachers to all parts of the country, and the throng to their schools was so great that in 1827 there were 52,000 persons studying in 900 schools, or more than half the number of the inhabitants were eagerly engaged in acquiring the elements of learning. In 1832 the number of natives who could read amounted to 32,000, of whom nearly all were also able to write. At present there is in operation in Lahainaluna a normal school for the training of preachers and teachers, who alternately devote themselves to intellectual and physical work, as the students earn their living by the tilling of a farm belonging to the institution. Manual work takes a prominent place in all schools of the little Kingdom. Education is obligatory for both sexes from 6 to 15 years of age (formerly 4 to 14). A peculiar feature is the regulation in force that anybody who can not read or write is prohibited from obtaining public office and also forbidden to marry.

The Kingdom is divided into twenty-three school districts, each of which is under the supervision of an inspector. This official superintends the management of the schools, both the instruction and the buildings and sites. He is required to furnish quarterly a report to the central authority. The school year has forty-one school weeks. The daily sessions are from 9 to 2 o'clock, with one or two intermissions. Sunday and Saturday are holidays. There are different classes of schools:

1. Primary schools (common schools), where the entire instruction is given in the Hawaiian language.

2. English schools, where the English language is the means of instruction. 3. Private schools, in which both languages are used.

The school at Lihue, on the island of Hawaii, in which German and English are taught, belongs to the third class and is attended by children of German workingmen only. For children of the aristocracy there is a kind of secondary school that took its name from the street in which it is situated, "Fort Street School." Protestant missionaries established near Honolulu, on the island of Qahu, the principal city of the country, the "Qahu College," after the pattern of French schools. Catholic missionaries also established schools whose textbooks are, with few exceptions, printed at Honolulu in the native language. The direction of the entire educational system has been assigned to a "bureau" or "board," consisting of five members, of which three are natives who were educated in the country. The president, at present Mr. Bishop, was formerly secretary of the state department: previous to that, a member of the house of nobles and president of the legislative body. This bureau appoints the teachers and superintends the expenditure of the money appropriated by the representatives of the

people. It nominates a general superintendent for the whole educational system, who visits each school of the country twice a year to examine the pupils and the condition of the school. He reports to the bureau or board. In order to fulfill his duties the general superintendent is obliged every year to travel 800 miles on horseback and 1,600 miles by water. During the school year 1888-89, there were in the Kingdom 179 schools, 63 primary, 69 English and 47 private schools, with 8,770 pupils (4,952 boys, 3,818 girls), with a teaching force of 334 members (177 men, 157 women). At the last exposition in Paris, in 1889, there was on exhibition pupils' work from Hawaii, nearly all of which was expressed in good English and in pleasing form.

The educational system in Hawaii furnishes proof of how much one can do if stimulated by earnestness of intention. Scarcely sixty years have passed since the first pioneers of public education commenced their work in Hawaii, and already its public school system can compare with that of Europe.

The state, however, has easy sailing because it has the schools, and no obstacles are raised by the church, since religious societies and the clergy are excluded from the management of school affairs. (Freie päd Blätter.)

Hungary.-Count Albion Casky, the minister of public instruction in Hungary, has recently issued in the German language a synopsis of his annual report, in which he says that he considers professional supervision and a thoroughly trained corps of teachers the most important factors of progress in any school system. So far as figures can speak, certainly Hungary has made rapid progress during the last twenty years. The report shows a comparison between the state of affairs in 1859 and 1889, from which we cull the following items:

I. Elementary schools.-In 1889, 2,015,612 children attended school, while in 1869 only 1,152,115. In comparison with the number of children of school age between 1869 and 1889, an increase of attendance from 50.42 per cent to 80.65 per cent is recorded. While in 1869 1,598 communities were without any schools, that number had decreased to 244 in 1889. The number of schools in 1869 was 13,798; in 1889 it was 16,702. In 1869 the number of teachers was 17,792, while in 1889 it had increased to 24,615. The expenditures for maintaining elementary schools in 1869 were only $1,342,363, but in 1889 they amounted to $5,396,777. While in 1869 the state's subvention to elementary schools was only $14,556, it was $6,505,315 in 1889. The great increase recorded above is found only in those portions of the Kingdom inhabited by people of the Hungarian, German, and Ruthenian tongues. The attendance of Roumanian, Servian, and Slavakish children is in a rather backward condition.

II. Secondary schools.-The Kingdom has 180 secondary schools; that is, 151 gymnasia, or classical colleges, and 29 realschulen, or modern colleges. One hundred and thirteen are complete in their organization, while sixty-seven had not quite completed their organization, lacking the senior classes. The classical schools were attended by 36,367 students, or 83.3 per cent; the modern by 7,303 students, or 16.7 per cent. The minister remarks that the attendance in modern schools is increasing faster than in the classical schools.

III. Superior schools.-Concerning universities, technical and other superior institutions, the minister reports that the candidates for the profession of teaching and students of technical, agricultural, and military schools are increasing in number faster than those of the universities. In the universities he notices that the law faculties and academies are still overcrowded, as in former years, while the number of candidates for theology, medicine, forestry, and mining is decreasing. An interesting feature of the superior education in Hungary is this: The examination for graduation must be exceptionally rigorous, for of 877 candidates for the legal profession only 521 (that is, 59 per cent) passed the examination; of 297 medical students, only 207 (or 69 per cent); of 140 students of the philosophic faculty, only 38 (or 27 per cent); of 210 students of the Polytechnicum, only 80 (or 38 per cent) passed.

Italy-A new school for Italy is now under the consideration of the council of public instruction, and its provisions are foreshadowed in the "New Educator" of Rome. It is proposed to transfer the charge of the infant schools from the minister of the interior to the minister of instruction, and the age of compulsory attendance is raised to twelve years. The appointment of teachers is left in the hands of the communal boards. Teachers under 21 years of age will only be provisionally appointed; on coming of age their status will be improved, and at the age of 24 they will be recognized as fully responsible teachers. Thenceforth they will be removable only for grave offenses specified in the bill; their dismissal will have to be approved by the provincial board of education, and an appeal to the minister will probably be allowed.

School-inspector Gen. Pisani has recently published a book on the Italian schools which is designed to show what progress public education has made during recent years in Italy. The number of elementary pupils in 1889-90 was 2,102,615 (or 1,094,467 boys and 1,008,148 girls); this is an increase of 55,000 over the previous year. Of the sum total, 1,966,988 pupils were in public schools, 135,627 in private schools. The number of classes in the public schools was 78,675, hence the average number of pupils per class room was 25. The private schools had 8,791 classes, which is an average of 15 pupils per class room. The number of teachers, however, is not equal to the number of classes; it is only 41,336 for public and 5,063 for private schools. The number of teachers shows an increase of 1,500 over the previous year. It is evident that most of the teachers teach two classes a day. The hygienic conditions of the schools and the school furniture are said to be anything but satisfactory. The teachers are not well prepared for their profession and their standing in society is very inferior. The communal authorities are said to be irregular in paying their teachers. A law is being prepared which will protect the teachers from arbitrary action on the part of the local authorities, and securing the payment of a minimum salary by the state.

Japan. The house of representatives in the new diet of Japan is extremely anxious to cut down the budget, and a conflict is imminent between it and the government on this subject. Its proposals are sweeping, and if carried out would cause no little consternation in the education department. The grant for schools would be reduced from $800,000 to about half that sum. Some five years since the late Viscount Mori, who perished by an assassin's knife on the day of the declaration of the constitution, just two years ago, established five great secondary schools in different centers throughout the Empire, to act as feeders for the university and to serve as a check on the growing congestion of students in the capital. These institutions are specially threatened by the parliamentary reformers, many of whom hold Spencerian views and dislike government control in education. Generally speaking, this is a critical time for education in Japan. The rising generation is growing up without those habits of instinctive obedience and reverence which characterized the previous civilization, and the capable teachers are all young and comparatively untried men. The question how to preserve sound morality and discipline in the schools is causing grave concern at headquarters. There is a conservative government at full flow just now; the demand for foreigners as teachers is at ebb, the schools in most cases preferring Japanese who can help them to translate. Foreigners have never been so unpopular since the great revolution.

There is a troublesome class in the capital known as soshi, a word which is difficult to translate so as to convey an adequate meaning. They are not students, though so described sometimes, but rather political unattached meddlers who would right all wrongs by use of the sword, sticks, and bombs. They profess to be intense patriots, and are certainly in many cases reckless of their lives and most deliberate in carrying out their plans. The only school in which anything of the soshi spirit has appeared is the secondary school of Tokio, some of the students in which have once or twice disgraced themselves. (London Journal of Education.)

Mexico.-The Pædagogium (Dresden and Vienna) of March, 1891, contains an interesting account of recent educational movements in our neighbor republic, written by a resident, whose name is withheld by the editor, Dr. F. Dittes.

For a number of years both the central government, as well as the officials of the separate states, have made praiseworthy efforts to promote public instruction, and particularly to bring the education of the masses to a level worthy our century, and by doing so to lift the degree of culture of the nation in morals, science, and material welfare, so that Mexico might occupy a place among the civilized nations of the world corresponding to its advantageous natural conditions and resources.

However, these efforts and the willingness to make grand sacrifices have not been crowned with the success which one would justly be entitled to expect, if the enormous sums are considered that were expended for the purpose.

The main causes of this lamentable fact are, the want of well-trained profes sional teachers; frequent misunderstanding of educational theories taken from foreign pedagogical works; the blind acceptation or rejection of new ideas, methods, and theories in accordance with the first impression; finally, the chaosarising from the fact that every state, however small it may be, and although all are subject to the same central government, has its own school legislation. Hence, in the preparation of teachers in the studies of elementary and secondary

schools there is no uniformity in the curricula, and from year to year, even within the course of one school year, changes are made which prolong or shorten the course. The student is obliged, under such circumstances, to lose time and means in order to adjust himself to the same conditions in case he moves across the border of his little state. More frequently he loses confidence in science and its teachers. The same chaos prevails in the philosophic fundamental principles according to which science is taught in the higher seats of learning.

While here pedagogy is taught after Herbert Spencer and psychology a priori after Jaime Balmes, at another place psychology is taught after Spencer and logic after Tiberghien; here flourishes the positivism of August Compte side by side with the rationalism of Krause and Ahrens, and again at another place we find the philosophy of St. Thomas of Aquino luxuriating under the shadow of Charles Darwin.

Orange Free State.-The system of education in Orange Free State is national. Small grants are also made to the Episcopal and Roman Catholic Churches. The government schools are managed by elected local boards, which choose the teachers, who are appointed by the President if he is satisfied with their qualifications. Education is not compulsory nor free, except for very poor children. In 1890, 17,000 livres was allotted to education, being a portion of interest on a capital of 200,000 livres set apart by the "Volksraad" for this purpose. In 1889 there were 49 government schools, inclusive of the two higher schools and the infant school at Bloemfontein, with 2,139 pupils and 74 teachers. Grants are made to private schools on certain conditions. In 1889 there were 14 such schools with 211 pupils. The Grey College, the highest school for boys, prepares candidates for the matriculation of the Cape University. There is a similar school for girls. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Ecuador.-The religion of the republic of Ecuador, according to the constitution, is the Roman Catholic, to the exclusion of every other. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory. There is a university at Quito and university bodies at Cuenca and Guyaquil. There are 37 secondary schools and 856 primary schools, with, according to official statistics, about 60,000 pupils. There is a scientific institution in Quito with 11 professors and 50 students. There are commercial, technical schools, and military schools.

Persia.-In Persia there are a great number of colleges (medresseh) supported by public funds, in which students are instructed in religion and Persian and Arabic literature, as well as in a certain amount of scientific knowledge, and many schools for children, while private tutors are very common, being employed by all families who have the means. A polytechnic school with a number of European professors, opened in Teherân forty years ago, has done much towards introducing the knowledge of Western languages and science into Persia. There are also military colleges at Teheran and Tabriz; but the bulk of the population are taught only to read the Koran.

Peru.-In Peru elementary education is compulsory for both sexes, and is free in the public schools that are maintained by the municipalities. High schools are maintained by the government in the capitals of the departments, and in some provinces pupils pay a moderate fee. There is in Lima a central university called "Universidad de San Marcos," the most ancient in America. Its charter was granted by the Emperor, Carlos V. It has faculties of jurisprudence, medicine, political science, theology, and applied science. Lima possesses a school of mines and civil engineering, created in 1874, with good collections and laboratories. There are in the capital and in some of the principal towns private high schools under the direction of English, German, and Italian teachers. Lima has also a public library with a rich collection, besides the one of the university and school of mines. There are two minor universities at Cuzco and Arequipa. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Portugal.-In Portugal the superintendence of public instruction is under the management of a superior council of education at the head of which is the minister of the interior. Public education is entirely free from the supervision and control of the church. By a law enacted in 1844, it is compulsory for parents to send their children to a place of public instruction; but this prescription is far from being enforced, and only a very small number of children of the middle and lower classes really attend school. According to official returns of the total population at the close of 1878 the number of illiterate inhabitants in Portugal and its islands is stated to be 3,751,774, or 82 per cent of the total population, including, however, young children. The total school population in 1885 was 332,281. In the year 1887 there were 3,739 public primary schools with 179,089 pupils, and 1,608 private primary schools with 60,725 pupils. The total day school at

tendance of 329,800 gave an average of 50.9 per cent per 1,000 inhabitants. For secondary instruction there were 22 lyceums with 215 teachers: 74 private schools and a royal military college with 272 students. For higher instruction there are (1887) the following schools and colleges: The University of Coimbra, founded in 1290, with faculties of law, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy, 774 students; the polytechnic schools of Lisbon, and Oporto, 354 students; the medical schools at Lisbon, Oporto, and Funchal, 286 students; a military and a naval school at Lisbon, an agricultural and veterinary institute at Lisbon, and a higher school of literature. For special instruction there are: The industrial and commercial institutes at Lisbon and Oporto with (1887) 1,222 pupils; 14other industrial schools with 1,078 pupils, 4 artillery and 2 naval schools (corvettes) with together 314 pupils; and 15 teachers' seminaries with 3,838 students. The clergy are educated in 22 establishments, where most of them receive gratuitous instruction. Schools of agriculture are being established in various parts of the country.

The expenditure of the ministry of public instruction, according to the budget of 1890-91, is 1,102,233 milreis, exclusive of 643,223 milreis to be expended through other ministries. (Statesman's Yearbook.)

Russia. The Government is making strong efforts at Russifying the Grand Duchy of Finland. All the secondary schools have received a new course of study in which the Russia, language predominates. Thus the Baltic provinces with their almost exclusive German population and Finland with its Swedish population are to be made Russian provinces in fact as they are now in name. (Paed. Ztg.)

Roumania.-In Roumania education is free and compulsory "wherever there are schools," but is still in a very backward condition. There are about 3.000 primary schools with 130,000 pupils, or about 2 per cent of the population (in Great Britain the proportion is 12.3 per cent). There are 8 normal schools with 800 pupils: 54 high schools with 8,000 pupils; 2 universities (Bucharest and Jassy) with faculties in law, philosophy, science, and medicine, and having about 100 professors and teachers and 800 students.

Salvador.-Education is free and obligatory in Salvador. In 1888 there were 732 primary schools with 27.000 pupils; 18 higher schools (including 2 normal and 1 polytechnic school) with 1,293 pupils, and a national university with faculties of jurisprudence, medicine, natural sciences, and engineering, attended by 180 students.

In the capital is a national library and museum, and in the republic 13 newspapers are published.

Transvaal.-There are 10 English schools in Pretoria, and one or more in each of the other towns. According to the report of the acting superintendent of education for the year 1888, the sum of £24,987 was spent for the education of 5,475 pupils. In 1889 there were 28 village schools and 196 ward schools, besides a gymnasium with 173 pupils at Pretoria. The establishment of a university is contemplated and £20,000 were voted for the purpose by the Volksraad.

Santo Domingo.-Primary instruction in Santo Doningo is gratuitous and obligatory, being supported by the communes and by central governments. The public or state schools are, primary, superior, technical schools, normal schools, and a professional school with the character of a university. On December 31, 1884, when the last school census was taken, there were 201 municipal schools for primary instruction, with 7,708 pupils. It is estimated that there are now 300 schools with about 10,000 pupils.

There are several literary societies in the capital and other towns, and in the republic there are published about forty newspapers. (Statesman's Yearbook.}

17. PENSIONS.

Scotland.-Glasgow has a scheme for the pensioning of teachers which it will be interesting for American leaders to study. The actuary has worked out the details with great care. It applies to all employés of the school board. There are six classes-headmasters, assistant male teachers, assistant female teachers, office staff, janitors, and compulsory officers. The first three classes only are considered in detail, and the assessments of salaries are made at the following rates: Headmasters, 8 per cent; assistant male teachers, 5 per cent, and assistant female teachers, 8 percent, the total amount of the capital fund required to be found at present being $300,000, or, including the other three classes, $350,000. There were in June, 1889, in the employment of the board 67 headmasters, ranging in age from 35 to 65; the average scale of salary ranging from $1,250 to $2,000