excellent organization which to-day we have reason to admire; on the other hand, owing to several important events, political personages had to be drawn into the proceedings, persons who carried the discussions into the domain of higher education. Here, naturally, principles of pedagogy and general educational questions claimed the attention. The claim to an equal education for all citizens was urged. Upon this basis it was thought the endeavor to combine the different branches of instruction, as well as the different kinds of schools, might be successful. The result of this discussion was the adoption of ideas indicating fundamental reforms, according to which education was to be conducted "with motives of justice, freedom, and love for the young." Besides these questions, others relating to gratuitous, obligatory, and secular instruction were discussed. As the work which had been laid out for this congress could not well be finished within the prescribed limit of time, another session was held in Paris in the year 1879, in which questions were discussed touching the protection of children, freedom of instruction, moral education, and instruction in civics, also concerning the teaching of language, drawing, and manual labor. Although it can not be denied that the members of this congress were actu ated by a great love for the cause of youth, one is on the other hand obliged to admit that their demands were pushed rather too far. They put in the claim that every school should possess a workshop, a garden, a library, a museum, and a laboratory; also a panorama of history and geography, and a hall for musical and other entertainments. They further insist that the site of the school buildings should be as attractive as possible, and that the buildings should have a handsome exterior. All these demands were naturally shipwrecked on the rock expense, especially as instruction was gratuitous; however, the congress had this good result: that public attention was directed towards the school question, and the school officers and functionaries spurred to renewed activity in this department, in which so much remained to be done. The school authorities hence forth gave much closer and more constant attention to the subject of instruction in manual labor, since they recognized how very important to a comprehensive education is the early training of hand, eye, and taste. The next congress, which also held two sessions in Paris in the years 1880 and 1881, owed its existence to private initiative exclusively. It met to give expression to the wishes of the friends of education in France and other countries, who were joined by a small number of French public school teachers. The idea of educational congresses periodically meeting had not taken root very deeply among teachers of the public schools, and yet it was necessary to make teachers of the primary schools acquainted with important educational questions and to afford them an opportunity for exchange of opinions. Moreover, there were brought to discussion in parliament, owing to the interposition of the minister of instruction, Jules Ferry, legislative questions relating to school matters, the solution of which was anxiously looked for in every direction. The French Government, particularly at that time, voluntarily favored the wishes and endeavors of teachers. Formerly, the national administration of education had been satisfied with assembling certain teachers to hold a sort of professional conference in which the wishes and projects of the government were submitted and discussed. But now the administration frequently called together conventions of teachers; their opinions were asked, and they were invited to propose principles and methods for the better regulation of instruction; but the administrative officers held themselves far aloof from all direct influences of teachers. This mode of procedure is still in vogue at the present time, and although the learned and far-famed M. Gréard, vice-rector of the Paris Academy and as such the representative of the government, constantly appears as the chairman of the teachers' convention in France, this surely is not done with the idea of winning the teachers over to the views of the government, or to allure them into the government's camp. The honorable character of the great savant is a sufficient guaranty againstall that. The respect which is so universally manifested toward his experience and his 、stately presence, excludes anything like underhanded actions. He endeavors most strenuously to exclude every personal matter from the debates, and to insure free discussion to all. His work consists chiefly in devoting his ripe experience and his talents to the service of the good cause. He only takes part in debates in order, as he himself once remarked, "to obtain result (by means of votes) which may be recognized as the expression of the common views of those present." Animated by this truly liberal-minded spirit the congresses met in the years 1880 and 1881, but their work not being finished, it was resolved to hold a third congress in the following year. The first assembly united the male and female principals of the normal schools and a number of public school inspectors. The second consisted of the public school teachers, whilst the third saw in its midst the faculties of all the normal schools and the practice departments connected with them. The questions discussed were as follows: In the year 1880: 1. The educational organization of ungraded public schools. 2. The methods of obtaining a better preparation of students for the normal schools. In the year 1881: 1. Means for improvement of school attendance. 2. Instruction and education in the lower grades of public schools. In the year 1883: 1. What are the experiences that have been made up to this time with the newly organized normal schools in regard to teaching force, supervision, and dormitories? 2. What difficulties are encountered in carrying out the new courses of study, especially in regard to psychology and morals? 3. Organization of practice schools and their extension. 4. Questions concerning the service which a normal school can render the teachers of the province. All these questions were discussed in a practical and definite manner; most of them had already been considered in the assemblies of the cantons and departments. After the congress had disbanded, its proceedings were given to the public on the part of the ministry. Cours Pédagogiques de 1881 et 1883 (Paris, Imprimerie Nationale). The reproach has been cast upon this congress that it was entirely official; but although we recognize the importance of conventions perfectly independent and free from any official interference, yet, on the other hand, we must also admit that a liberal ministry not disinclined to reform will surely avoid everything that might arouse a suspicion of partiality. Judging by the spirit which characterizes the French educational administration, it can not be doubted that its aim was and is merely to learn the views of its most important fellow-workers in the great cause of education, and these most assuredly are the teachers. It invites them to conferences, follows their labors, tests their results, and carries out their plans as far as it is practicable. Although financial difficulties often frustrate the good intention of the French Government, we must for that reason not think that the government in its cooperation with superiors and subordinates fails to see the best solution of the difficult educational problems. Thus, then, the first step toward inaugurating large teachers' meetings was made. Those who participated in the congress returned to their homes with the consciousness of having fulfilled their duty, but also with the wish that they might soon again take part in such an assembly; for they had the satisfaction of seeing that Parliament and school authorities hastened to embrace in legislative bills some of the requests which had been brought up in the congress. It was not long before the next great convention was held. It took place in the city of Havre, in the year 1885. Havre had always been noted for her friendliness to the schools, as well as her excellent school institutions. Her public and business schools are considered the best in the whole country; her school buildings, as far as elegance and stately architecture are concerned, are unequaled in France. The city from time to time sends teachers to foreign countries in order that they may learn other systems of education, and it was first in Havre where a "Society for Objective Instruction" displayed in schools and societies by means of lantern slides the most important discussions of modern times, the miracles of nature and industry, in a manner suited to the ordinary understanding. The suggestion to hold an International Congress of Teachers was made by the mayor of the city, M. Jules Siegfried. In his resolution relating to this measure, he emphasized the importance of congresses in all the departments and especially in that of education, because it was only in this way that valuable and tried improvements could find entrance. All partake of the benefit derived from them, teachers, pupils, families, and the country itself. The resolution was adopted, and a committee composed of representatives of the teaching profession and of the state officials was intrusted with the preparatory work. The assembly was to take place at the end of September, and at the beginning of August twenty-five hundred persons had signified their willingness to participate. M. Gréard was asked to occupy the chair at the opening of the congress, which was to be divided into three sections; the minister of instruction had also promised to be present at the opening. The assembly, which was well attended, was principally occupied with the consideration of four questions, to wit: (1) The benefit derived from national and international educational congresses; (2) instruction in manual labor in the public schools, and organization of schools for mechanics; (3) teachers' salaries in different countries; in what proportion should state and community contribute to the salaries of teachers? (4) the question of practical preparation of candidates for the position of teachers in the normal schools. The discussions of the third question excited the greatest degree of interest, because the law of the 16th of January, 1781, relating to gratuitous instruction in the public schools afforded some natural advantages to the older teachers, but contained some rather unfavorable passages for the younger men. A rectification of this matter was demanded as far as the finances would permit. The demands of the assembly on this point were comprised in these, which were submitted to the government. The second and fourth numbers of the programme were also thoroughly considered; and again, a renewed interest was manifested in the question of manual training, the plan of which had been determined by the law of December 11, 1880, and by that of March 28, 1882. This subject, which, like no other one, is in need of the warm advocacy of inspired enthusiasts and requires as low penetration into the consciousness of the people at large, was also brought up before the international congress of the year 1889; yet even now it has not been settled in an entirely satisfactory manner, though all are convinced of the importance of this discipline in the educational work of the public schools, and would not agree to abandon it as a branch of instruction? The question of the benefits of national and international congresses naturally could not be disposed of in one session; the discussion therefore ensued as to the intervals after which such conventions should be held; what persons should be invited as deputies, and what means should be employed for defraying the expenses. It was proposed to elect a permanent committee from the assembled delegates for the purpose of organizing congresses; but the idea was dropped at the request of the minister of education, who had himself expressed his willingness to convene such an assembly in case of necessity. Mention should here be made of another, namely, the international, technical, commercial, and industrial congress, held in Bordeaux in 1886, which fell between the international congress of Havre and that of Paris in 1887, and enjoyed the patronage of the ministers of commerce and instruction and other high officials. The first subjects brought up were those relating to technical and commercial instruction; the next under consideration was that of the means of promoting the interests of the merchants and tradesmen of the future through public school instruction. The Congress of Havre had expressed a strong desire to hold a similar congress in Paris in 1887. A journal entitled Les Congrés Instituteurs" had been started in 1885, which had assumed the task of preparing the way for the Congress of Paris. The first appearance of this journal, issued by an educational society, at once opened the campaign for the idea suggested in Havre of forming a central union composed of the entire body of teachers in France. This journal desired to assemble a congress independently, although it was wellknown that the minister had expressed his willingness to act in the matter. The result of the numerous meetings which were held for the purpose of preparing a national congress, was the unanimous adoption of the following resolutions: First. A friendly league should be formed of all the teachers in each department. These unions collectively, are to form the Union of Teachers of France," Second. The delegates, and all taking part in the congress of 1887, were to take upon themselves the organization of these unions. Third. The "union of the teachers of France" shall endeavor the establishment of permanent interna tional educational congresses. The most determined adversary of the project of a permanent congress was the minister of education at that time, M. Spuller. In a circular of September 27, 1887, addressed to the prefects, he announced his firm intention to oppose this idea, and also any confederation designed to carry it out. In his opinion the congress would not subserve the purposes of progressive thought, or afford a place for the free interchange of opinions, but would degenerate into a mere wrestling place of passions and a scene of disorder. The circular met with the most violent resistance. The teachers were of the opinion that as they were in no sense state officials the rights to protect themselves against all political interference should at all times be permitted them. It may easily be imagined that this delicate matter was broached at the Congress of Paris, yet, as the element of prudence was a prominent one, very little time was devoted to it. Besides, the work before the congress was of such a a serious nature as to absorb all the time and attention of the delegates. The work was divided into five sections, viz, pedagogy, professional interests, provision for old age, the organization of congress, and gratuitous instruction. As the greater part of the questions had been prepared at former discussions the congressional debates could be essentially shortened. The questions submitted to debate were those that occupied the teachers all over France, and their selection had been made by preliminary inquiries, so that from the beginning these topics met the approval of the majority. The next and latest international congress in the interest of common-school affairs was held, opportunely, during the Paris Exposition of 1889. It was the result of efforts of the earlier educational congresses, and took the shape of an earnest manifestation of sympathy on the part of foreigners for the aspirations of the promoters of the educational system of France. The resolutions of this congress are still well remembered by all. (After L. Fleischer, Vienna.) 2.-BIBLIOGRAPHY. Book production. The London publishers' circular presents the following analysis of the busineɛs done by the publishing trade in England during 1889: In looking over the analytical table of books published during 1889, which was printed on the last day of that year, an exceptional literary activity was revealed. The figures for 1889 are not quite so large, but still they mark a production of between three and four hundred books more than were counted up and classified in 1888. In other words, the statistics go to show that the year 1889 has produced about one work per diem, Sundays included, more than the output of 1888. Comparing or contrasting the number of publications in 1889 with those of 1888, we find in theology a slight decline, both in new books and new editions. In educational works, also, 1889 has fewer works to show than its predecessor. Books for young people, on the other hand, show a good increase. Of novels and stories there are noted no less than 1,040 new books, besides 364 new editions. This gives the ardent novel-reader as many as three novels for each week day, with a balance to spare, and one new edition for every day. Germany. The following table of new publications is from the Berliner Börsenblatt: It is significant that the book production in Germany since 1886 has been steadily increasing, and that the increase is altogether in the direction of the more solid branches of literature, as theology, law, medicine, and natural history. In fiction the advance is almost imperceptible, the increase in the whole department of socalled Schöne literatur (Romane, Gedichte, Theater, etc.) being but sixteen new works. 3.-CLASSIC LANGUAGES. Germany.-In Germany, during late years, the conflict between the gymnasia (classical high schools) and the realschulen (modern high schools) became heated, because all petitions for admission of realschulen graduates to the university were refused by the Government and the university faculties. This is a vital point if we consider that the conditio sine qua non of a professional man (no one speaks of women in this connection in Germany) is to have gone through the classical high school, i. e., to have spent in the study of Latin and Greek respectively nine and six years. People that opined that one may become, if not a philologist and theologist, at least a physician or scientist and lawyer, without the knowledge of Greek, laid more stress on modern languages and insisted upon a combination of gymnasia and realschulen under the name of real-gymnasia. This kind of school was a hybrid which could not expect to live long, considering the capacity of the juvenile brain. The real-gymnasium endeavored to combine the advantages of the classical and modern high schools, and, of course, overburdened the pupils. For twenty years the authorities permitted the problem to stand unsolved. Almost unbearable hardships resulted from the fact that the curricula of the high schools were inflexible, nonelastic, cast-iron. Ambitious parents of small means made heroic efforts at securing for their sons a better future than thought possible in modest occupations, such as trades and commerce. When the boys failed during their protracted course of professional training (ie., three years in preparatory classes, nine years in the classical high school, and four years in the university), their future was blighted; being "studied men " they were considered "spoiled" for trales and commerce, and thought themselves too good for manual work. Hence they joined the army of malcontents. Every kind of high school in Germany has special aims in view, hence shapes its course and modes of training accordingly. That a school, and even a college, should be what it is in England and America, a school of general culture, and not a place in which to obtain an education ad hoc, was vigorously preached by Dr. Wichard Lange, Dr. O. Frick, and many others. The educational press devoted much space to plans for a simplifications of curricula and a unification of schools. The literature of Germany on the subject of secondary schools, especially the "Einheitschule" (common school) is quite copious, but the reform made little if any progress. Conservatism embodied in the highest school authorities of the leading states of Germany adhered to time-honored customs, until recently Emperor Wilhelm II, who has himself been a pupil of a gymnasium, and is fully aware of the un |