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running of errands. His age, mental training, and general maturity enable him to apply himself at once to the study of business methods themselves. Nor can any fixed rule be laid down as to the length of his novitiate. That will vary according to his ability, industry, and power of adaptation, and also according to the nature of the business which he has undertaken to learn. It may, in some instances, be only months; it may require years to master all the details. But cs he proceeds the practical value of his education will become more and more apparent. The success of college-bred men who have adopted a business carcer will compare favorably with that of business men in general. They have been successful, not in spite of their education, but in part because of it. Education is no magic key that of itself unlocks the doors of success in any department of life; but in business, as in other occupations, if joined to health, industry, energy, and common sense it will win a success of finer mold and mor3 enduring, more satisfying quality; it will be its own justification.

Old vs. new institutions of learning.-President G. Stanley Hall, of Clark Univer sity Age which brings wisdom may bring infirmities. In a time and land where change is so rapid trustees, alumni, and even faculties sometimes fall behind. Time is lost in administrative details better left to one. Young men are held back, and talent not held to its best thing, but kept doing the work of cheaper men, and the question may become pertinent why, with vast resources, so little is done for culture and for the advancement of knowledge by old institutions or comparatively so much by new ones. There is much to foster complacency and an unfortunate absence of competent criticism from without, whence all university reforms in history have really come. Prejudices may accumulate from without, and student custom and ideals grow up within that are as inveterate and ineradicable as they are vicious and absurd, but which make progress slow and hard. There is sometimes an excess of conservations. routine, and machinery. Saddest of all, perhaps, departments of endowed knowl edge, like professors, sometimes cease to be productive and grow dry, formal, sterile, but they can not be displaced. It may be harder to regard an old institution as a means, precious only as it broadly serves the highest culture-interests of the whole nation, and not as an end precious in and for itself. We know how wasteful and unproductive the vast resources of Oxford and Cambridge had be come in 1854, and what old abuses had to be corrected in Italy and Holland by such and other somewhat drastic outside means. In this new country we need new men, new measures, and occasionally new universities; and we, like England, have in later years experienced their amazing good. In the field of experimental science, unlike some other departments, what is there of importance, that a few centuries can afford, that can not be at least as well provided in a few years?

The differentiation of higher educational institutions urged.-G. Stanley Hall: We [at Clark University] duplicato almost nothing in other universities in this country. A full department of physics, chemistry, or mathematics even. to say nothing of biology, the complexity of which is more obvious, as sketched for us by several European leaders in their field, would each require several professors, each with one or more assistant professors to represent its several sections or departments of the subject. Thus, to say nothing of difference of grade or standard, it does not follow, because we have physics, chemistry, and other departments found in other institutions, there is duplication. The contrary is, in fact, the case. The best professors in their fields, however authoritative they may be in the entire department, excel in and contribute chiefly to but a few chapters of it, leaving ample space for other directions of excellence elsewhere.

In the new era of university development, upon which this country is now entering, it is of fundamental importance for economy and for the success of a great movement that, in place of the monotonous uniformity, duplication, and servile imitation that has prevailed, institutions should freely differentiate and should be known to do so; that above the commendable loyalty to local institutions by their graduates, there should arise the same comparative and critical discrimination of institutions as of courses in the same institutions under the elective system. Perhaps the chief benefit of the latter has been the stimulus it gave to every professor to make his course so profitable that it should prove attractive to the most of the best students. The same stimulus could be given to institutions by the extension of the elective system to them.

What a real university is.-Nicholas Murray Butler: The university is a wholly different institution from the college, and while in this country we have scores

of nominal universities, the real ones may be counted on the fingers of a single hand. A college in which the course of study is elective wholly or in part is not a university. A group of professional or technical schools is not a university. A college and a group of professional and technical schools taken together is not a university. A university must have for its heart and soul the great philosophical faculty of the Germans; the faculty which finds its reason for existence in the preservation of the humanities and in a careful and loving study of philosophy, philology, and letters. A university is marked by the time-honored freedom in teaching and freedom in study; it knows no trammels, no compulsion. It is not a disciplinary institution, but rather a field for research and investigation. At the university the bounds of knowledge will be continually widened and the leaders of the future generation in science and literature trained to their work. Professional schools or faculties, apart from the philosophical faculty, have always become technical and narrow-it is the philosophical faculty that is the real university center. Its spirit and insight must regulate and inspire all of the associated faculties.

VI.-KINDERGARTENS.

The kindergarten the great remedy for formalism in the primary school.-W. T. Harris: The school teaches the conventionalities of life; it gives the child ac cess to the wisdom of the race, but it often errs in making its experiences to the child too formal. It is too rigid and unsympathetic, and the child is expected to throw off the freedom of the family at once, and all too scon assume the formalities of the world. Thus did the great need of a connecting link between the two call for some noble-hearted lover of his kind to suggest a change, and Froebel, whose memory all kindergartens, all true educationalists reverence, came to the rescue and supplied the need. The kindergarten takes the little one in his tenderest years, and by placing within his reach symbols and games suited to his comprehension, enables him to naturally, and without undue or forced effort, grasp and assimilate the ideas and teachings desired. It makes him notice what is going on in the great world around him, and seeing begets the desire to imitate. It leads him up from the initial stage of feeling to thinking, and from thought to action. But the games and plays are only a portion of the work; there are gifts and occupations. These are less symbolical and more logical, and train the quantitative faculties. A child does not readily realize what it means to think quantity; it is a hard and awkward step for him to take, and the idea of number, for instance, must be learned not by starting at a unit. and adding, but by taking a divisible unit and dividing it; and thus Froebel, who perceived this point, introduced the divisible block. The kindergarten is the great remedy of this century for the formalism of the primary school, and it had been badly needed before it came to the rescue.

What children have a right to expect from the kindergartner.-W. E. Sheldon: Children have a right to expect that their individuality shall be recognized and respected; that their natural and hereditary traits shall be taken into account in their training; that all manifestations of interest in their development and culture shall be genuine; that an active and progressive intelligence shall be supplemented by a well-balanced self-poise of the trained kindergartner which the child will soon discover to be an element of true manhood or womanhood worthy of imitation; that their many questions shall be regarded as of importance and that the replies shall stimulate further respectful inquiries. Questions are the natural openings of the child's mind, which natural inclination prompts, and aid the teacher in the work of instruction. You should convince the learner that all proper inquiries are in order at suitable times and that it is a pleasure for you to answer them. If the inquisitiveness becomes unprofitable in character or in frequency use your best tact as the means of restraining it. Let the child appear to exercise the right of personal liberty and yet not gratify what may be really an unworthy curiosity.

Some straws.-The report of Superintendent Cassidy (Lexington, Ky.) declares the greatest need of the schools to be kindergartens.

Dr. James Mac Alister: To my mind to-day no problem is so important as the kindergarten universal.

Superintendent W. H. Love (Buffalo, N. Y.): The first change to be attempted in our school reform is to bring in the kindergarten or subprimary work.

VII.-MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.

Effect of industrial education upon general education.-Prof. Felix Adler: During an experience of 12 years in the application of manual training in the teaching of children between 6 and 14 years of age, I have observed that manual training in the ordinary school is the means of saving those children who are plainly and obviously deficient in what may be called literary quality. There are many children who are very slow in reading, in arithmetic, and in history, and it has been my observation that these children, especially numerous among the poorer classes, are at once stimulated intellectually by the opportunities of the school workshop. It has been my invariable experience that children who are slow in their progress in reading and history and mathematics are very quick in natural history and in drawing and in the workshop. Especially has the conjunction of a talent for natural history and for manual training frequently impressed itself upon me. The effect has been to stimulate these children not only in manual training and in natural history, but, awakening their self-confidence and self-respect, to stimulate them generally. Those boys who, in an ordinary public school, would be set down as dunces because they make no progress, and who would begin to consider themselves dunces after a while, find themselves facile princeps in the shop and in natural history, and gain the respect of others and take a new start. The best work in modeling and manual training in the school of which I have charge has been done by such pupils. Surely, therefore, this is an argument in favor of introducing manual training from the point of view of general education. If manual training can promote the intellectual training of a very large number of children defective on the intellectual side, that is a sufficient reason why it should be introduced.

Another result of my observation has been that the school-workshop is a means of strengthening the mathematics, the drawing and the elementary physics teaching. Although the main object, as the president has said, should be to educate the eye and the hand, nevertheless this education should not be unassociated with the other studies of the curriculum. The object should be to connect the manual training with the work of the class-room, and this can be accomplished by close connection between the work of the shop and the drawing, mathemat ics, elementary physics, etc. The pupils are asked to make their own physical apparatus, and geometrical figures are of course constantly brought before them, and many opportunities are offered for making their space perceptions more definite and clear. Another advantage in such a school brings me to what Profess or Patten has said as to the function of the teacher taking the place of the military officer. It is very difficult for the teacher in the ordinary school room to discharge that function, but the teacher in the shop can do it. The pupils must present themselves before him before they go to work. He inspects their clothing and sees that they are neat, that they are neat in their work, that they put away their tools and keep them properly; he gives that personal supervi sion to the habits of his little workmen which should be given, but which the other teacher can not give.

In all respects I can say that we have found after 12 years of observation that the regular work of the school has been strengthened by the introduction of manual training, and especially the English work and the compositions. The great difficulty lies in controlling the expression of the pupil's thoughts, of know ing what is in the pupil's mind. The teacher must know this in order to be able to control the pupil's thought. By introducing shop teaching and requiring the pupil to describe the operations which he has performed in the shop, and to describe the work in the factories he visits, the master of the shop is enabled to know approximately the content of the pupil's mind and to control his manner of expression.

VIII. METHODS OF INSTRUCTION.

The best methods of teaching modern languages.—Ex-President E. H. Magill, of Swarthmore College: What then do I recommend to the students of the modern foreign languages in our colleges? First, that they should rid themselves, once for all, of the idea that a little smoothly flowing, trivial conversation, upon topics of daily interest, in another tongue, is the sine qua non, and that they should not spend, not to say waste, their valuable and overcrowded time in acquiring this fluent speech. The "natural method" (so called) of teaching the modern languages, in its unadulterated state, I consider to be one of the greatest popular fallacies of modern times. The very expression, "natural

method," is in itself misleading and a misnomer. If it really were the natural method, it would surely commend itself to all educators. But it should be remembered that what may be natural for young children, in acquiring their own tongue, is by no means natural for more mature minds. Children acquire their language by simple imitation, often repeated, with little or no exercise of the reasoning powers. No such method is possible with older persons in acquiring a foreign tongue. I say that no such method is really possible, after the reasoning powers have made any degree of development; and I will add that, if it were so, there is not time in this short life for its successful application. How much of written and spoken language does a young child learn in two months? I need scarcely say that it learns nothing in this time except how to utter a few common words and phrases, and, of course, nothing whatever of written or printed speech. And yet, in two months a mature mind may acquire enough knowledge of a foreign tongue to enable him to begin to read it with pleasure, and in two more months to read with considerable rapidity, and begin to make the acquaintance of authors whom it is a privilege to know. The 'natural method," I say then, for mature minds, is wholly unnatural and irrational.

Observe that I do not say that the ability to converse intelligently in a foreign tongue is a knowledge to be undervalued and despised; but I do say most, emphatically that this knowledge can never be acquired except by daily association with those to whom the language is their mother tongue, without the expenditure of an amount of time entirely incommensurate with its real value. Those who are never to mingle with foreigners can have no practical use for the language as a medium of conversation, and for those who are to do this there is no more valuable preparation than that obtained from reading and hearing read by a competent linguist the language to be learned. That this reading may be extensive, even in the short courses which our colleges can afford, there must be a thorough ground work laid by becoming rapidly familiar with the forms and constructions of the language and the principal common idioms and a vocabulary should be acquired as fast as possible, after the forms become somewhat familiar, by reading the language even superficially at first; and reading not in the ordinary readers of mere fragments from various authors, but reading some complete selections from authors of unquestioned reputation.

Hence, I say, make the grammatical drill short, sharp, incisive; reduce the amount of grammar needed for reading to a minimum; and by all means never waste time in the bootless and wearisome task of turning good English into poor French in the early stages of the course. It is quite early enough for a student to begin writing original French when he becomes familiar, after a great amount of reading (partly superficial, for rapidity, and partly critical, for thoroughness of knowledge) with the manner in which other persons write it! But this is by no means to be understood as ruling out dictée exercises, which should be practiced almost daily from the beginning. It is excellent practice for a student to write out translations in English of the language studied, and then restore it to the language from which it was taken. Many points, which would escape notice entirely if merely translation into English were followed, would thus receive attention and be rapidly and firmly impressed upon the memory. The one panacea in teaching Greek.-Thomas D. Seymour, professor of Greek at Yale: The most foolish thing in education is the suffering of words to be forgotten as soon as they are learned. For this evil but one cure can be foundreview. If I am ever pronounced a monomaniae this is the subject which will be found uppermost in my mind. This is the one panacea which I offer for all ordinary ills and troubles in learning Greek: If the student learns with difficulty or forgets easily, if he has weak eyes or an aching head, if he has but little time for study or is behind his class, whether he wants to excel in Greek or wishes to take as little pains as possible with the language, let him review! The principle of reviewing, of course, is this: If I am introduced to a man on the train and have a casual half-hour's conversation with him to-day I may be able to identify that man at once a year hence, or, having near-sighted eyes and thus a dull memory for faces, I may be compelled to say: "I remember your face very well, but I confess I can not say where I have met you before." But if I have a ten-minutes' talk with that man to-day, meet him on the street and exchange greetings with him next week, talk with him again for five minutes a month hence, see him and some of his relatives for a few moments in the spring, I could identify that man with certainty a year or ten years hence, although I had never spent in all more than half an hour with him. So with words. If a student meets a word to-day and is introduced to it, has a little.

chat with it, as we may say, but does not meet that word again for two months, he is obliged to say: Your face is familiar, but I can not call you by name. I must apply to my nomenclator for information about you.”

The plan of reviewing which students should be urged to adopt, and which they must be stimulated constantly to follow, is to review the day's lesson as soon as possible after the exercise in the classroom. Only thus can the corrections which have been inculcated be fixed firmly in the mind. Otherwise when the student takes up that work after an intermission of one, two, or three days he is apt to remember only that something has been said on this or that point. Often he is not quite sure whether a member of the class gave one rendering and the teacher strongly preferred the other, or whether the case was just reversed. But if he reviews the work soon after the lesson is read he can not fail to remember the circumstances and the exact point that was made. Now, if once a week the student takes time (perhaps half an hour) to review all the Greek he ha read during the week no special effort is required; he remembers the meaning of the words and phrases and the whole situation. Again, if once a month the student takes the time (perhaps an hour or an hour and a half) to review all the Greek he has read during the preceding month, no great effort is required; the words and constructions are familiar. Then the general review at the close of the term becomes what it should be, a look from a superior position over the whole field which has been traversed. Most of the details of that work are fixed in the memory for life, and even if they should become dimmed they may be easily brightened.

The only objection that can be raised to such a system of reviews is that it takes time. And so it does at first; but the time which is invested in that way bears the heaviest interest from the very outset. The advantage gained from the thorough appreciation of the situation, through the familiarity with the earlier portions of the work will be felt at once. The same words and constructions are constantly recurring, as the student will remember in his vexation when he is obliged to look up a word for the fifth or tenth time.

How to learn to read Greek as a living language.-Prof. Thomas D. Seymour, of Yale University (in school and college): If the teacher has not time to have the Greek both read aloud and translated, he should omit part of the translation and have all read aloud.

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This practice in pronouncing Greek words until they are as familiar to the ear as they are to the eye, should begin with the very beginning of the study of Greek. If this is neglected then the loss can never be made good.

Probably many of you are familiar with what the well-known archeologist, our countryman by adoption, who died less than a year ago, Dr. Heinrich Schliemann, has written with regard to his experience in learning foreign languages, in which he had unusual success. When he, as an errand boy in Hamburg, saw that his promotion in business could be gained only by a knowledge of the Russian language, he could find no teacher, but set to work with an old Russian grammar and a copy of a Russian translation of Télémaque, which he found at an old book stall. He read this Russian Telemachus aloud, and in order to force himself to persist in this, he hired, for a few cents a night, an old man who knew not a word of Russian to hear him read this work aloud for three hours every evening! Schliemann afterwards learned about a dozen other languages in a similar way, and believed with all his heart that his success in this matter was due solely to his patience and persistence in reading aloud.

If from the first the Greek is made thoroughly familiar to ear and torgue, the easy, oft-recurring words like those for house, boy, man, woman, horse, etc., would demand no more effort of mind for their apprehension than many English words, like mansion, steed, etc., which the school boy does not himself ordinarily use. And if the most frequent words require no effort of the memory the more time and strength are reserved for the rarer and more difficult words.

But the reading of the Greek aloud not only aids materially in fixing the meanings of words in the memory; it also renders important service in assisting the mind to grasp a clause or a whole sentence as a complex, and to receive the thought of the whole as a unit, rather than in separate details, each of which has to be disentangled from the rest. Thus, and thus only, does the beginner learn to read Greek as a living language, and he will find true literary enjoy ment as he gains increased facility in reading without conscious translation.

The home-study of pupils.-Margaret W. Sutherland, in the Ohio Educational Monthly: The giving of work to pupils simply to give them home-work seemed a strange thing to me. In 22 years of teaching, that phase of my duty had never

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