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Railroads are often responsible for carrying typhoid and spreading it. It is said that a recent outbreak of typhoid in Scranton, Pa., was due to the fact that the excreta from a typhoid patient traveling in a sleeping car was washed by rain into a reservoir near which the train was passing. Railroads are thus seen to be great open sewers. Some more sanitary kind of toilet should be used so that filth and disease will not be scattered over the country.

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A diagram to show how typhoid may be spread in a city through an infected milk supply. The black spots in the blocks mean cases of typhoid. A, a farm where typhoid exists; the dashes in the streets represent the milk route. B is a second farm which sends part of its milk to A; the milk cans from B are washed at farm A and sent back to B. A few cases of typhoid appear along B's milk route. How do you account for that?

How the Board of Health fights Typhoid. Pure water is the first essential in preventing epidemics of typhoid. Health board officials are constantly testing the supply, and, if any harmful bacteria are found, a warning is sent out to boil the water. Boiling water at least 10 minutes kills most harmful germs.

The milk supply is also subject to rigid inspection. Milk brought into a city is tested, not only for the amount of cream present to prevent dilution with water, but also for the presence of germs. The cleanliness of the cans, wagons, etc., is also subject to inspection.

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germs to milk. Spread of such diseases through milk can only be prevented by careful pasteurization (heating to 170° for a few minutes). In many large cities pasteurized milk is sold at a reasonable price to poor people, and thus much disease is prevented.

Disease germs of various sorts, typhoid, tuberculosis, pneumonia,

diphtheria, and many others may be transferred through the agency of food. Fruits and vegetables may be carriers of disease, especially if they are sold from exposed stalls or cars and handled by the passers-by. All vegetables, fruits, or raw foods should be carefully washed before using. Spoiled or overripe fruit, as well as meat which is decayed, is swarming with bacteria and should not be used. The board of health has supervision over the sale of fruit, meats, fish, etc., and frequently in large cities food unfit for sale. is condemned and destroyed.

How the Board of Health fights Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis, which a few years ago killed fully one seventh of the people who died from disease in this country, now kills less than one tenth. This decrease has been largely brought about because of the treatment of the disease. Since it has been proved that tuberculosis if taken early enough is curable, by quiet living, good food, and plenty of fresh air and light, we find that numerous sanatoria have come into existence which are supported by private or public means. At these sanatoria the patients live out of doors, especially sleep in the air, while they have plenty of nourishing food and little exercise. In this way and by tenement-house laws which require proper air shafts and window ventilation in dwellings, by laws against spitting in public places, and in other ways the boards of health in our towns and cities are waging war on tuberculosis.

REFERENCE BOOKS

Sharpe, A Laboratory Manual for the Solution of Problems in Biology. American Book Company.

Allen, Civics and Health. Ginn and Company.

Davison, The Human Body and Health.

American Book Company.

Gulick Hygiene Series, Town and City. Ginn and Company.

Hough and Sedgwick, The Human Mechanism. Ginn and Company.
Richman and Wallach, Good Citizenship. American Book Company.
Ritchie, Primer of Sanitation. World Book Company.

REPORTS, ETC.

American Health Magazine.

Annual Report of Department of Health, City of New York (and other cities). Bulletins and Publications of Committee of One Hundred on National Health. School Hygiene, American School Hygiene Association.

INDEX

(Illustrations are indicated by page numerals in bold-faced type.)

Accommodation of eye, 410.

Acts, automatic, 404.
Adaptation, 28, 41, 221.

Adaptations, for pollination, 44, 46;
for seed dispersal, 53, 54, 55, 56,
80;

in birds, 297, 299, 301;

in frogs, 285;

in mammalia, 312;

in snakes, 295;

in turtles, 293;

in vertebral column, 326;

to environment, 144, 249.
Adenoids, effects of, 389.
Aggressive resemblance, 250, 251.
Air, amount of, in breathing, 384,
385;

changed in lungs, 385;

composition of, 17;

factor in germination, 76;

fresh, how to get, 419;

necessity of, 405.

Algæ, 145.

Alimentary canal, 352.
Alligator, 296.

Alternation of generations, in cœlen-
terates, 208;

in fern, 155;
in mosses, 153;

in spermatophytes, 156.
Alveoli, 383.

Amoeba, parts of, 193;

reproduction of, 193.

| Amphibia, 285;

characteristics of, 292;
classification of, 292.

Angiosperms, 157.

Animals, cold-blooded, 369;
domestication, 316;

relation of, to man, 14.

Annulata, classification of, 220.

Antennæ, 223, 244.

Antennules, 223.

Antheridia, 153, 155.

Ants, 255;

Alcohol, and ability to do work, 413; | Antherozoid, defined, 154, 155.

and disease, 412, 422;

and longevity, 424;

a poison, 345;

as a food, 344, 346;

effect on blood, 379;

effect on bodily heat, 395;
effect on circulation, 379;
effect on digestion, 364;

effect on excretion, 397;

and their "cows," 256;

artificial nest for, 256.

Aphids and ants, 256.
Appendages of skeleton, 327.
Arachnida, 245, 247.
Archegonium, 153, 155.
Arteries, structure of, 374.
Arthropoda, classified, 247.

effect on intellectual ability, 413; Asexual reproduction, amoeba, 193;

[blocks in formation]

Asymmetry in oyster, 268.
Atwater's experiments, 332.
Auricle, 370.

Bacillus, 175.

Bacteria, and fermentation, 177;
carried by fly, 260, 261, 420;
cause decay, 177;

cause disease, 178;

from human mouth, 179;

in impure water, 433;

in milk, 180;

in schoolroom, 387;
in streets, 419;
nitrogen-fixing, 178;
size and form, 175;
their relation to man, 14.
Bacteriology, defined, 14.
Bark, use of, 104.

Balanced aquarium, 185.
Balancing in birds, 300.
Bean, 65.

Bean seedlings, 78.

Beans, as food, 68.

Beaver, 314.

Bees, 40, 43, 253, 254.
Beer making, 172.
Beetle, characters of, 242.
Benedict's test, 71.
Berry, 53, 63.

Bile, functions of, 360.
Biology, civic, 418;

reasons for study of, 13.

Bird, body of, 297.
Birds, care of young, 304;

classification of, 308, 311;
distribution of, 307;

economic importance of, 304;
extermination of, 306;

feathers of, 298;

feet of, 299;

flight of, 298;

migrations of, 307;

nesting habits of, 303, 304;

perching, 309;

perching in, 300.
Bison, 315.

Bladder, urinary, 391.
Bladderwort, 130.
Blastula, 200.

Blood, amount of, 369;

and its circulation, 366;
changes in, in body, 393;
changes in, in lungs, 383, 386;
clotting of, 367;

course of, 372;

distribution of, 369;
exchange in, 376;
function of, 366;
temperature of, 369;

vessels, congestion in, 394;
wastes of, to kidney, 391.

Bodily heat, affected by alcohol, 395;
in cold-blooded animals, 393;
regulation of, 392.

Body, daily fuel needs of, 337;
normal heat output of, 339.
Box elder twigs, sections of, 103.
Brain, functions of parts, 403;
of man, 401.
Bread mold, 149;

growth of, 150.

Breathing, and lacing, 388;

hygienic habits of, 388;

mechanics of, 384;

movements in, 383, 384;

rate of, 384.
Bronchi, 382.

Bruises, treatment of, 378, 394.
Bryophytes, 157.

Bud, structure of, 98, 99.
Budding, 110.

Buds, factors in opening of, 99;
position of, 100.

Bugs, 242, 243.

Bumblebee, 40, 41, 42, 253.
Burns, treatment of, 394.
Butterfly, 237;

compared with moth, 238.

Calorie, defined, 333.

Calorimeter, respiration, 332.

Calyx, 34.

Cambium layer, use of, 104, 111.
Canal, semicircular, 408.

Capillary circulation in frog's foot,

373.
Carapace, 222.

Carbohydrates, 24, 331.

Carbon, properties of, 21.

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