us to the further consideration that, while the ocean-beds have been sinking, other areas have been better supported, and constitute the continental plateaus ; and that it has been at or near the junctions of these sinking and rising areas that the thickest deposits of detritus, the most extensive foldings, and the greatest ejections of volcanic matter have occurred.

There has thus been a permanence of the position of the continents and oceans throughout geological time, but with many oscillations of these areas, producing submergences and emergences of the land. In this way we can reconcile the vast vicissitudes of the continental areas in different geological periods with that continuity of development from north to south and from the interiors to the margins, which is so marked a feature. We have for this reason to formulate another apparent geological paradox-namely, that while in one sense the continental and oceanic areas are permanent, in another they have been in continual movement. Nor does this view exclude extension of the continental borders or of chains of islands beyond their present limits at certain periods; and, indeed, the general principle already stated, that subsidence of the ocean-bed has produced elevation of the land, implies in earlier periods a shallower ocean and many possibilities as to volcanic islands and low continental margins creeping out into the sea; while it is also to be noted that there are, as already stated, bordering shelves, constituting shallows in the ocean, which at certain periods have emerged as land.

We are thus compelled to believe in the contemporaneous existence in all geological periods, except perhaps the earliest of them, of three distinct conditions of areas on the surface of the earth :

1. Oceanic areas of deep sea, which always continued to occupy in whole or in part the bed of the present ocean.

2. Continental plateaus and marginal shelves, existing as low flats or higher table-lands, liable to periodical submergence and emergence.

3. Lines of plication and folding, more especially along the borders of the oceans, forming elevated portions of land, rarely altogether submerged, and constantly affording the material of sedimentary accumulations, while they were also the seats of powerful volcanic ejections.

In the successive geological periods the continental plateaus when submerged, owing to their vast extent of warm and shallow sea, have been the great theatres of the development of marine life and of the deposition of organic limestones, and when elevated they have furnished the abodes of the noblest land faunas and floras. The mountain-belts, especially in the north, have been the refuge and stronghold of land life in periods of submergence, and the deep ocean-basins have been the perennial abodes of pelagic and abyssal creatures, and the refuge of multitudes of other marine animals and plants in times of continental elevation.

These general facts are full of importance with reference to the question of the succession of formations and of life in the geological history of the earth. So much time has been occupied with these general views that it would be impossible to trace the history of the Atlantic in detail through the ages of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Tertiary. We may, however, shortly glance at the changes of the three kinds of surface already referred to.

The bed of the ocean seems to have remained, on the whole, abyssal, but there were probably periods when those shallow reaches of the Atlantic, which stretch across its most northern portion and partly separate it from the Arctic basin, presented connecting coasts or continuous chains of islands sufficient to permit animals and plants to pass over. At certain periods also there were not unlikely groups of volcanic islands, like the Azores, in the temperate or tropical Atlantic. More especially might this be the case in that early time when it was more like the present Pacific; and the line of the great volcanic belt of the Mediterranean, the mid-Atlantic banks, the Azores, and the West India islands point to the possibility of such partial connections. These were stepping-stones, so to speak, over which land organisms might cross, and some of these may be connected with the fabulous or prehistoric Atlantis.

[To be continued.]

SOME OUTLINES FROM THE HISTORY OF EDUCA

TION.

By W. R. BENEDICT,

PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY AND LOGIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI.

III.

HE truths of the educational reformers reached comparatively

Tantraired of the guhere the schools continued to

isters and priests; indeed, this was the accepted design of the schools. We have many illustrations of the home training during these years. I name a few as recorded. Christian Weise, eight years of age, was required by his parents to discontinue study on account of sickness. He objected to this course, saying "The power of Jesus Christ will come to my aid, he who is strong in the sick ones." George Nitzsch (who wrote a treatise entitled "Is Scripture God Himself?") in his ninth year could find no more delightful occupation than prayer and memorizing sermons. Feustking, when he was nine years old, had read the Bible through five times, and at the same age had preached before his father's congregation. It is said that some one wished to use extracts from classical writers; the Church authorities thereupon

decided that the New Testament was written in the purest Attic Greek, and that any change was unnecessary.

We meet now a most instructive manifestation in the history of education. Formalism was blighting the Church, whether Catholic or Protestant; and blighting education, whether Jesuit or Lutheran. This formalism encountered an entirely new opposition, and all educational movement received a most peculiar shaping. Spirituality is the grace and life of some souls, as it is not the grace and life of some other souls. Never a church or party so bad as to contain no spiritually-minded. These are they who now appear, materially affecting the course and method of education. We should see clearly the position of affairs. Speaking historically, there are two oppositions to scholastic orthodoxy in education: one, the realistic, basing itself upon an experimental philosophy, and eventually working itself out as a scientific method; the other, spiritualistic, basing itself upon the purely spiritual elements of our nature, and developing into mysticism, pietism, and all vagary. There is a singularly interesting comparison between these different attacks upon scholastic orthodoxy. We have seen how the experimental philosophy received form and power from Bacon; we have seen how Comenius applied this philosophy to education; yet we know that education was not rescued from scholasticism. The reason, as I believe, lies in this fact: A purely or even a largely intellectual opposition was not able to reach the emotions and the conscience, and, until these were profoundly stirred, there would be no true, permanent deliverance from scholastic orthodoxy. A protest must arise from the side of the feeling. Precisely this did arise, precisely such an opposition manifested itself within both churches, appearing as Jansenism with the Catholics and pietism with the Protestants. This emotional protest, this protest in the Church herself against herself, brought clearly to view the radical antagonism between scholastic training and the newer methods everywhere appearing.

Jansen, born 1585 in North Holland, found the fundamental evil of his time to consist in the exclusive occupation of men with heathen philosophy-i. e., with Aristotelian scholastic. He made a thorough separation between philosophy and theology, believing them to rest upon widely different bases. This Jansenist movement in the Catholic Church was applied to education by the society at Port Royal. The most celebrated representatives of the method are Rollin and Fénelon. A sentence or two from Rollin will show his position: "I know that the true purpose of the teacher is not merely to make the scholars acquainted with Greek and Latin, or to teach them to write verses and exercises, or to burden their memory with events and dates from history, or to enable them to shape their conclusions in correct form, or to draw lines and figures upon paper. I do not deny that these studies are useful and worthy all praise, but only as means not as end, only when they serve as preparations to better things." Rollin is

plainly a humanist. In his opinion a study of the languages is most important as an introduction to all knowledge. As respects the methods of learning these languages Rollin directly opposes scholasticism and appeals to Nature. He is right in this, for, if Latin and Greek are to be taught at all, they are to be taught naturally; and if those who advocate classical training as an essential part of every student's education would do permanent work for their conviction, let them present these languages naturally and philosophically. The opposition to formalism based upon the spiritual nature was universal, and produced similar results in many lands. It was known among the Catholics as Jansenism in the Netherlands and France, as Quietism in Italy and Spain. It was known among the Protestants as Mysticism and Pietism in Germany. The Protestant German representatives of this reaction are Böhm, Spener, and Zinzendorf. A few lines from the first of these men show the nature of mysticism and its relation to education. Böhm writes: "Man is the image, life, and being, of the uncaused God. In man's body is all Nature concentrated. The soul is the outspoken word, as the power and understanding of all being, as the revelation of Divine Reason. Man stands in the outward world and bears in himself heaven and hell. As the spirit of eternity has imaged all things, so the human spirit bodies itself forth in word, for everything originates from one center. If I read myself, I read God's book. We know Nature, because we stand in her and have her in ourselves. We know God, because he is in us and we live in him. God himself is our seeing and knowing-from God's seeing has sprung my seeing."

Such thorough-going opinion would not tolerate the faults of a dead and formal training. Böhm saw the error from his point of view, and hesitated not to speak: "The small boy who runs about in play is full of the poison and iniquity of the devil, and all forms of vice inhere in him. He is a mocker, a swearer, thoroughly prepared to serve the devil in all his deeds. The shamelessness is the Latin on his tongue. He knows how to imitate all the jesting words of the ancients. The youth mock without consideration. Whoso fears God must be their fool and jest. Their parents see these youth, and rejoice that the boys are so skillful in their rascality." Mysticism, Quietism, Pietism, are differing names for one and the same protest made by the spirit against the letter. Since there never was a time in the history of Protestantism when so direct an attempt was made to conduct education according to the religious spirit, it may be wise to give this matter more thorough consideration. Pietism may be said to have been established by Philip Jacob Spener, born at Rappoltsweiler in Elsass, 1635. We shall, as I think, best recognize his spirit and method by the following sentences from his writings: "Before all things we should hold fast the fundamental truth that Christianity does not show itself in knowledge but in practice, and that the Christians must be led to

works of unselfish love, to the control of their spirits under slander, to the withholding of themselves from all revenge, to love and patience even in theological matters. Our fathers, with praiseworthy anxiety, established schools; they did so that, in these schools, the youth might not simply be built up to manhood, but especially that they might be led by pious training to a living knowledge of their Father; that the image of God might be more and more perfected in them, that from these schools men should go forth, not simply for the spread of knowledge, but that, equipped with every virtue which leads to true happiness, they might serve the honor of God and the public good in the position to which God had appointed them. As it now is, all industry in the schools is given to Latium, so that little remains for Hellas, for Judea scarcely anything. Our youth go from the schools tolerably well furnished with such knowledge as they shall put to outward use, but without knowing God, all absorbed in love for the world and endeavor to please it, wise for themselves, but so much the less instructed in divine wisdom."

We must clearly know what pietism, at its best estate, proposed as the end of education. We shall, I think, find this end distinctly set forth in the following utterances :

"The final purpose of all education is a living recognition of God and an upright Christian deportment. Only the genuinely pious man is a good citizen of society. Without true piety, all knowledge, all skill, all world-culture, are more harmful than useful, and man is never safe from the misuse of knowledge. First, and before all other things, education must strive for the radical improvement of the heart. Everything which immediately or mediately works against this supreme and final end must be banished. Instruction is subordinated to training." (Italics the present writer's.) "The purpose of the school is not an impartation of certain knowledges-all teaching must contain an educative tendency. The design of such training is the upbuilding of the kingdom of God in the heart of the child, and, proceeding from this basis, education should be comprehended in all its grades and divisions as one system, one culture. Those who give themselves to study should regard the ancient languages as the chief concern. Latin is to be pursued the most, and grammatically, from the beginning. Greek has its basis in the New Testament. A chief advantage to be gained from the ancient languages is a right understanding of the sacred Scriptures, which every student should read in the original. It is well to understand the heathen writers; still, too much occupation with them easily leads away from a high estimation of the Bible. Next to the languages, no student should remain unacquainted with geography, mathematics, history, astronomy, and natural philosophy. In the higher classes logic, which leads to orderly thought, and rhetoric, which leads to correct and good expression, should be pursued and made practical by exercises and disputations."