claim to be called parts of speech, than the neighing of a horse or the lowing of a cow.* INFLECTION OF WORDS. 57. In pursuing a closer investigation of the properties and functions of the respective parts of speech, of which we have already taken a brief review, it is necessary to observe, that There are five terms used in connection with the parts of speech of very frequent occurrencePerson, Number, Inflection, Gender, and Case. These deserve particular attention. * It is very probable that when man first attempted articulate language, it would be in imperfectly defined ejaculations, and hence would arise that class of words called Interjections. These cries, though at first unideal, would, we can imagine, from the recurrence of the same objects to the mind, gradually be recognised as definite sounds, and thus become the individual names of the different objects which originally excited or called them forth. We may, for instance, suppose that a child seeing and hearing a bird cry cuckoo, would naturally on a second sight be lead to individuate the same bird by the mockery of its own reiterated cry-cuckoo. It can scarcely be imagined that this would at first be anything more than a simple ejaculation of the cuckoo's note, and yet it is probable that the recurrence of the cry on successive appearances of the bird, would intuitively lead to the ultimate estalishment of cuckoo in the mind as the bird's individual name. This is the probable manner in which the cries or ejaculations of intelligent creatures originally became definite representatives of distinct ideas. Hence would arise that important class of words in grammar denominated Names. Besides this, observation could not fail to perceive that an elephant was a large thing, and a mouse a small thing-that some things are black and others white. Hence would arise another classification to describe the properties of things in general-namely, Describing Words. Again, living objects would not be merely seen to be possessed of abstract properties, but would be observed in action-doing something. Hence would arise another evident class of wordsnamely, Verbs. But animate things would not only be observed in motion, but their manner of action would be seen to vary. Hence would come another distinct classification-namely, Adverbs. Now a very frequent repetition of names would be irksome to the ear, and there is, therefore, nothing very irrational in the hypothesis that such irksomeness would suggest, if not necessitate, another class of words -namely, Fornames Having thus got the framework of language complete, we now only want the peg-and-nail department to connect the whole substantially together, which forms the remaining part of speech-namely, Connecting Words. 58. There are three Persons-the First, Second, and Third. The first is the person or persons speaking. The second is the person or persons spoken to. Examples-Thou lovest. You love. The third is the person or persons spoken of. Examples-He loves. She loves. It loves. They love. 59. Person applies to the most essential classes of words composing artificial language-names, fornames, verbs, and many of the describing words. 60. Not only the fornames illustrate the three persons in the examples given above, but also the verbs accompanying them. Of the list of fornames previously given, the first four, namely, I, me, we, us, are of the first person, representing speakers; the second four, namely, thou, thee, ye, you, are of the second person, representing persons spoken to; the remaining seven, namely, he, him, she, her, it, they, them, are of the third person, representing persons spoken of. 61. There are two Numbers-the Singular and the Plural. Any word implying one is of the Singular number. Examples-Man, boy, horse. I, thou, it. Any word implying two or more is of the Plural number. Examples-Men, boys, horses. We, you, they. The Plural Number is generally formed by adding s to the Singular.* *To say more than that Names generally form the plural number by adding s to the singular, exceeds the boundary line of the English tutor. Regardless, however, of so obvious a fact, Grammarians mysterize that instruction which would otherwise be clear and interesting by several additional rules, so undecisive of themselves, that they have called for the accompaniment of a somewhat copious dictionary of exceptions from rule, and in many cases, from subject also. It may, however, be reasonably supposed that an Englishman does not know an English word which he cannot pluralize, and that a French, Greek, and Latin list of non-reducibles can to him have no beneficial result. 62. When any word is changed in spelling for number, person, or any other purpose, the changed form is called an Inflection of the word. Flies, for instance, is an inflection of fly; that is to say, flies is an inflected or changed form of the word fly. 63. There are in Grammar three Genders,— Masculine, Feminine, and Common. 64. Words representing Males are of the Masculine Gender. Examples-King, gentleman, master, father. He, him. 65. Words representing Females are of the Feminine Gender. Examples-Queen, lady, mistress, mother. Her, she. 66. Words representing things that are neither Males nor Females, are called Neuter Names.* Examples-Stone, sand, coal. 67. Words representing, in the same form of spelling, either Males or Females, are of the Common Gender. Examples-Child, parent, I, we, us, you, they, them.+ 68. Gender has no reference to verbs, but is in other respects equally extensive in its application with person and number, It applies to names, fornames, and many of the describing words. All hes are masculine, so to speak; shes feminine; and its neuter, or neither of the two.+ *Neuter simply signifies neither. +A somewhat remarkable display of the inattention of grammarians is put in the plainest possible light by the rules they have invariably offered respecting the genders. Dissatisfied with propounding that males are masculine; females, feminine; and things devoid of life, neuter, they add that there are three ways of giving the feminine of man, whereas, woman is the only feminine of that name. The only feminine also of male-child is female-child; and of author, authoress. You here perceive that man has its feminine in a different word; male-child in prefixing another word; and author, by a change of termination. So that each name has but one feminine, although names altogether have three ways of distinguishing the sexes. "But," says a recent writer, "There is another circumstance that must be mentioned before we quit this subject of gender. There are 69. There are two Cases in English grammar -the Acting Case and the Receiving Case. A word in the Acting case represent the doer of something, or the first mover in an action. Example-" John (the actor) strikes." A word in the Receiving case represents the recipient of an action, or that upon which the action operates. Example-John strikes Richard (the receiver). 70. To illustrate, take the sentence, "John strikes Richard," and reverse the names, and make "John strikes Richard" into "Richard strikes John." In these simple sentences the Acting case and Receiving case are fully exhibited. In the former, namely, "John strikes Richard," we see John occupying the office of actor, which makes it, of course, in the acting case, and in the same sentence Richard stands as the receiver of John's action, and is, of course, in the receiving case; while in the latter sentence, namely, "Richard strikes John," the names are merely reversed-Richard is now the first mover some nouns, so ambiguous in their meaning, that it is not easy to see what gender is spoken of. Parent, for instance, may mean either father or mother. Of these words, we say, not that they are of the doubtful gender, but that their gender is doubtful. Other words, again, are so comprehensive in their meaning, that they necessarily include both the genders. For instance, if a man speak of his parents, be necessarily includes both father and mother. Most grammarians say that these words are of the common gender." To this he adds, "Inclusive, I think, would be a better term." Notwithstanding that, he thinks he has happily selected a term of stricter appropriateness than common gender, which is the name now mostly adopted, there is an objection to its admission. No mistake can arise from common gender, these terms implying that the name spoken of is applied to either male or female, or both. This writer's doctrine is one which holds out to us two genders for the same word. Parent, he thinks, should be called doubtful, and its plural parents inclusive. There is a decided objection to contribute to the present multiplicity of technical names in grammar pages, without the new distinctions are likely, on their creation, to bring along with them something of manifest utility. Otherwise their increase will rather retard than promote the learner's progress, in the action, and John the action's recipient; hence the grammatical case of each name is altered. Names are spelled precisely the same in both cases. 71. When a word stands merely as the name of a thing, apart from construction, and consequently from action, it has not a case, as rabbit, hare, gun, ball. : 72. If, however, we place these words in construction, they will immediately assume a case. For example:"The gun, (acting case) shot the hare (receiving case).” "The ball, (acting) killed the rabbit (receiving)." 73. The receiving case is mostly called the Objective or Accusative, and the acting case the Nominative. 74. Grammarians have also taught that a word standing as the mere name of a thing is in the Nominative case. While the author presses no objection to this term Nominative, literally signifying naming, he can discover no reason why words in this capacity are not neuter in respect to case, in the same manner that names of inanimate things are ncuter in respect to gender. The one class is simply of neither case, and the other simply of neither gender. 75. More obvious want of judgment could not have been displayed on one of the most difficult points in literature than has been exhibited in English grammars in the dis tribution and arrangement of the cases of names. While some have theorized on no case at all, others have held out the diversity of one, three, six, and even a still greater number of cases. 76. Case, which comes from the Latin word casus, or fall, is said to represent the cases as declining, or falling, from one which is considered a perpendicular or upright case, to others, considered inclined, or oblique cases, their obliquity being formed by a change of termination. The fact is, that neither of the cases English names possess, either declines or falls from the other by its termination, because each name has but one termination, and that is unalterable by change of place or office. The word Case, according to this explication, is altogether absurd and inapplicable to an English name, however far it may be applicable in the learned languages. In Latin, for instance, there are properly six cases, namely, the nominative, the |