The countries to which this portion of the charges, which tempt them to defraud their investigation relates are-1, Persia and In-lord, who revenges himself by the corvées dia; 2, Egypt. which he imposes upon them.

According to Chardin, Persia is divided Dr. Worms remarks that the third of the into territory of the state and territory of de- produce of the lands, which forms the remesne, called mokufat and kasseh, or gen- venue of the king and the lords, is the eral and particular. State territory is also kharaj, and the tax of a ducat a head on called mamalek, that is, kingdoms,' the dif-persons who are not of the religion of the ference consisting in their being under the country (of which Chardin speaks) is the administration of a governor, who receives [jezia; and these and other analogies, which the principal revenue, out of which he pays are found in Persia, Turkey, India, and his officers and troops, giving the king only Egypt, confirm the proposition which he a small part in presents, or in discharge of had before enunciated, that all Musulman certain rights; whereas the demesne terri- estates are but fractions of one great society, tory is under the administration of the vizir subject to the same law and the same ador intendant, who receives the revenues for ministrative and political code, and where all the king. The pay of the militia is assigned is identical and common, even to the least on the lands of the province. important customs."

Land in Persia is divided into lands in Dr. Worms then examines the question use, and lands out of use, that is, cultivated with reference to India. He notices the asand uncultivated. The former are of four sertion of Col. Dow, that the sovereign is, in sorts; state lands, demesne lands, the proper- (Mahomedan) India, the sole proprietor of ty of the church, and the property of indi-the soil, except some hereditary districts, viduals. The state lands (the mokufat), possessed by Hindu princes on the condition which include the greater part of the king-of paying an annual tribute, and that he is dom, are in the possession of the governors; the universal heir of his subjects, both which the demesne lands (the kasseh) are the pecu- propositions are asserted by Bernier. Dr. liar property of the king, part of which are Worms enters into this knotty question, alienated for a term or for life, sometimes which has divided the opinions of the ablest contiuued from father to son for several gen- Indian statical writers, without, however, erations. Church lands are donations from diffusing much light upon it: he has evidentthe king or private individuals, which can-ly something to learn respecting the nature not be resumed or confiscated. The lands of landed tenures in India, which, especially of individuals are their property for ninety- in the southern provinces, are infinitely varinine years, never longer, during which pe- ed. Dr. Worms is one of those who deny riod they may sell and dispose of them at the right of the zemindars to the fee-simple pleasure, and at the expiration of the term it of the land; he considers, as most authormay be renewed on payment of a year's re-ities now do, that "the office of zemindar, venue. The greater part of private landed property is charged with a small annual tax to the king.

or rather of jaghiredar, conferred no right to the fee-simple, but only a precarious authority, with an assignment of the revenues The lands out of use belong to the state or of the state." He grounds this doctrine upon the king, according to the territory in which the Institutes of Timur. Neither does he they are situated; but since the king is admit that the right to the soil belonged to master of the property of the state, and may the ryot. "An examination of the regularender it demesne property whenever he tions of Timur, Akhbar, and Aurungzebe," pleases, it may be said that all land not ac- he observes, "proves irrefragably that the tually occupied, or in a condition to be so, government alone had, in India, power over belongs to the king. Land out of use may the soil, and that neither the zemindar be obtained, on application, for a term of nor the ryot had any right of property in ninety-nine years, either without condition, it." or on payment of so much a year.

On the estates of individuals, generally, an agreement is made with the cultivator; the lord furnishes the land, and sometimes supplies manure and water; commonly, he has one-third of the crop for his share. An ancient valuation of what the lands will yield is the rule for what is due to the lord as his share. On the royal estates, the peasants are subject to many vexations and to extraordinary

Dr. Worms then inquires into the territorial right in Egypt, a question which has been exhausted by the late Baron de Sacy, to whose work every writer upon the subject has recourse. That great writer concluded that the property of the lands in Egypt, excepting pious endowments and the oossych, or reserved estates, was divided between the sovereign (the Grand Seignor), the mooltazims (feudal lords), and the fellahs, or cul

tivators. "The sovereign is considered as primitive proprietor, but his right of property in the soil is never found joined with the usufruct; there must always be an intermediate party between him and the fellahs. The mooltazim, the bey, the mamaluk, or the private individual, possesses, by grant from the sovereign, and on the responsibility of paying the government claims, the territory of one or more villages, and receives such a portion of the produce, either in money or kind, as law or custom gives him. His property is not absolute, for he cannot deprive the fellahs settled upon the lands of the right of cultivating them. The fellahs are thus proprietors each of that portion of land allotted to him, not of the soil, or of the absolute usufruct, but of the right to make the most of it, exclusively of any other, from that portion of its fruits which the law gives them. This right is, at the same time, a duty which they may be compelled by force to perform." Dr. Worms remarks that, in Egypt, as well as in India, the right of property in the soil was neutralized by the circumstance that both were conquered territories, which thus became wakf. The condition of conquered people (non-Musulman) is expressed in two citations given by Dr. Worms from Mahomedan writers :

The country which the iman conquers by force he divides amongst Musulmans, or leaves it to the ancient inhabitants, imposing upon them the jezia (capitation tax), and upon this land the kheraj (land tax). The individual conquered (and paying the jezia) is free in condition; when he dies, or if he becomes Musulman, his land alone reverts of right to Musul

NATURAL OBELISK.-A correspondent just returned from the Pyrenees thus writes to us :-" In my wanderings this autumn I accompanied the director of the mines lately opened near the famous Port de Venasque, to within a few feet of the summit of the extraordinary natural obelisk, called the Pic de Picade, and we there discovered the remains of a gallery about 200 feet long, piercing a rich vein of lead ore. The director, a person of great intelligence, at once pronounced the work to have been executed by the Romans, and as it is well known that the latter were acquainted with the mineral wealth of the Pyrenean mountains, I have no doubt consists in the situation of this shaft; and when I of the correctness of his opinion. The wonder state that it occupied eight hours of almost perpendicular climbing, surmounting the most frightful precipices, to attain it, some idea may be formed of work. The mines, which are at the base of the the difficulties attendant upon the execution of the Pic, have only been opened during the summer, and when I visited them early in September, were yielding 1 oz. of silver in 131bs. of lead."-Athen.

THE ITALIAN SCIENTIFIC MEETING at Lucca has

been attended by upwards of 400 distinguished literati and men of science. The Prince of Canino presided over the zoological, and Prince Louis, his learn from a letter in the Dublin Evening Mail that brother, took part in the chemical section. We Sir Wm. Betham's Etruria Celtica (see reviews in Literary Gazette, Nos. 1347, 1348, 1350, 1384,) had attracted much attention. The Prince of Canino, at one of the meetings, stated that it was a favorite notion of his late father (Lucien Bonaparte) that the Etruscan was Celtic, which opinion was also held by many other learned men of Italy; but hitherto they possessed no means of ascertaining established by Sir William Betham; and all lovers the fact. Now, however, it has been satisfactorily of ancient history must take a great interest in it; but Italy more than any other country, because it will further develop those treasures of Etruscan literature and antiquities, which the excavations beneath her surface have already brought, and are daily bringing, to light. The Prince proposed an ber, where Senor Livriati translated and explained adjournment of his section to the house of a memseveral passages of the Etruria Celtica to the venerable Ingherami, Valeriani, Vermiglioli, and others, who have so long labored in the fields of Etruscan inscriptions, which now fortunately being supplied, literature without any clue to the meaning of the gives a double zest to their labors. Prince Louis Bonaparte declared his intention of studying the Irish language.—Lit. Gaz.

SUBTERRANEAN STONE LABYRINTHS.-M. Baër, who has recently returned from a journey underGALILEO. Some manuscripts of Galileo, which taken, by desire of the Government, into the northwere presumed to have been lost, or burned by or- ern regions of Russia, for the purpose of making a der of the inquisition, have been found among some geological survey thereof, has discovered in Lapold archives in the Palazzi Pitti This discovery land, Nova Zembla, and some of the islands lying has created a wonderful degree of interest in Flo- near the coasts of Finland-particularly in Wiez, rence. It proves that the Inquisition, which was which is all but desert-several subterranean stone accused, may be calumniated; a fact of which labyrinths. The natives, whom M. Baër interromany persons entertained considerable doubt. Be gated as to the origin or destination of these labythat as it may, the manuscripts, besides being ob-rinths, knew nothing of them, save that they were jects of curiosity, are likely to be useful to astro-called Babylons, and held in such veneration that nomical science, inasmuch as they contain informa- the people were afraid to touch them. M. Baër tion respecting the eclipses of former times, a course has brought away drawings, which he is about of the satellites of Jupiter, subjects to which Gali- shortly to publish, for the speculations of the learnleo directed great attention.-Foreign Quarterly. ed and curious.-Athen.

THE EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER INTO | this expedition. Hearing, however, of Darius's

INDIA.

ILLUSTRATED BY THE LATE CAMPAIGNS IN
AFFGHANISTAN.

BY H. T. PRINSEP, ESQ.

From the Asiatic Journal.

THE Compilation of Arrian is the record of best authority which we possess of the military operations and marches of Alexander, for Quintus Curtius supplies only some fuller details of personal adventures, and a very few additional names. Arrian's seven chapters on Alexander's expedition are based, as the author states, on the notes of Ptolemy and Aristobulus, who both accompanied the army throughout. His descriptions are sufficiently accurate to enable us, with the lights recently thrown upon the geography of the countries traversed, to identify most of the principal rivers and places named; but there is a sad want of dates and distances in Arrian's narrative, and even the seasons of many of the operations, and the number of months and years occupied in them, have to be guessed from circumstances. On the whole, however, Arrian is a more sure guide in regard to this expedition than any other author of antiquity, and but for the changes of names usual in the Greek version of Oriental appellatives, as well as those incident to the course of events in twenty centuries, there would be less difficulty in following him than the Persian and Turkish historians of later expeditions.

After the victory of Gaugamela, in the province of Arbela,* which was gained in October, 331, B. C.,† Alexander marched first to Babylon, and then to Susa and Persepolis. The ruins of both Persian capitals have been fully traced and explored; the former is near Shoostur, and the latter about 100 miles north-east of Shiraz. These royal cities Alexander sacked, and then collecting all the camels and beasts of burthen of Lower Persia, he followed Darius to Isfahan (Ecbatana), the capital of Media, at the time of

* Arbela appears to have been a city, the headquarter town of a district.

↑ Arrian gives three dates-one of this battle, a second of the death of Darius, and the third of the battle with Porus. This last, however, is erroneous.

flight towards Bactria, he took himself with a light division the eastern route by Yezd to Ta bas, said to be the last town of the Parætaceni (half-way between Yezd and Mushud). Finding there that he could not overtake the fugitive king before he passed the mountains, Alexander returned to Ecbatana (Isfahan), and there rejoining his main army, employed the winter in reorganizing his troops, and dismissing homeward those Greeks whose time of service was expired. This effected, early in the spring of 330 B. C. Alexander crossed the Elburz mountains* at the pass near Tehran, called that of Dumavund, and formed his army in two divisions, employing one of them in reducing the Mardi, a poor and semi-barbarous race, who occupied a tract of country between the Elburz range and the Caspian; while the other was destined to operate northward, up the eastern shore of the Caspian, against Hyrcania. With this latter went Alexander, his reason for reducing this wild country being that a body of Greek mercenaries had retired thither. Hearing, however, while his army was crossing the Elburz, that Darius was in force at no great distance, he countermarched, and formed a light division, with which he went in person to attack him.

The Persian king, assisted by Bessus and the chiefs of Bactria and Darangia (Seestan), had appeared with an army towards Mushud, but refused to abide another battle, and fled as the Greek force approached. In this flight Darius was first deposed and made prisoner, and then slain; and Bessus, assuming the royal title, fled towards Bulkh, in Bactria. This was in the month of July, 330 B. C., and if Quintus Curtius is right in naming Tabas as the place of the

cur till next season. The pursuit from Hyrcania and the Elburz Mountains may, however, have taken a south-westerly direction to Tabas, so as to be that referred to by Quintus Curtius, which would leave doubtful the previous march on the same place.

* This pass is called in Arrian the Caspian gates, and Ragoa is placed near it. D'Anville's map of the ancient world gives precisely the locality of Dumavund for this pass. Darius's flight cannot have taken the line of the west shore of the Caspian, so as to pass the Durband Caspian gates.

There is a great controversy amongst the learn- There is much confusion in this part of Arrian's ed as to whether Hamadan or Isfahan is the Ecba- narrative. He mentions the reorganization of the tana, capital of Media, through which Darius fled, army and many arrangements made at Ecbatana, but and at which Alexander made his arrangements for leaves it to be supposed that these were operations the Bactrian campaign. I think it not at all improba- of a day or two, and that the pursuit of Darius to ble that both bore the name; but if the resources of Rage and the Caspian gates was immediately taken Darius lay in Bactria, it is very unlikely that he and up. But there is a winter intervening between Bessus should have retired by Hamadan, and the Alexander's march to Ecbatana and the campaign, evident line of advance from Persepolis, which is in the course of which Darius was deposed and near Sheeraz, was Isfahan. The Parætaceni also assassinated: this season, therefore, was evidently lay to the right, and the site of Tabas, half-way be- devoted to the reorganization of the army, and if tween Yezd and Mushud, would show, if we assume Alexander did follow Darius to Ragæ in 331 B. C., the flight of Darius and pursuit of Alexander to it was a mere excursion at the end of the season, have taken this direction, that the latter attempted not a continuance or renewal of the campaign. Dr. by that route to cut off Darius from Bactria, while Thirlwall has been misled by not allowing for a his main army advanced by Isfahan Tabas is winter here. He supposes that season to have been named by Quintus Curtius as the limit of Alexan-occupied in the operations near Persepolis. The der's pursuit towards Bactria, prior to the reorganization of the army at Ecbatana; but, by a strange confusion, he places the death of Darius in this flight from Ecbatana, whereas it clearly did not oc

date given by Arrian for Darius's death, compared with that of the battle of Arbela, and the stated military and civil arrangements made at Ecbatana, prove the manner of the campaign.

assassination, the flight must have taken a southerly direction from near Mushud or Abbasabad, which, as the Seestan satrap was the ally of Bessus, is not impossible. Alexander returned, according to Arrian, with the body of Darius, and crossing the Elburz range to the river Atruk, finished the conquest of Mardia and Hyrcania (Mazenderan and Gheelan). This effected, he took the direct route to the country of the Arii. The capital of Aria at that time is called by Arrian, Susia, probably the Hellenism of Subza or Subzawar ;* Herat was not in existence, but is supposed to be on the site of the city or fort erected by Alexander afterwards to control the Arians. Alexander established a Persian governor at Susia, and returned northward, to pass into Bactria after Bessus, by the routes probably of Merv or Mymuna. The Grecian king, however, had no sooner turned his back on the Arian country, than the Persian governor revolted, and having overpowered the detachment left with him in Subzawar, retired to make head at Artakaona, amongst the mountains east of Herat. This brought the Grecian army back in haste. Artakaonaf is a place written six ways, but which probably will be the Greek version of Oordoo Khan, a common name. Sakhir, the capital of the Ghorians at the head of the Kashk river, is a site well suited for a stronghold of refuge, and the Oordoo Khan or Artakhan intended will probably have been near

it.

appear that he went thither; on the contrary, at a late period of the year 330 B. C., he made the passage over the high ridges between Herat and the Kabool valley, suffering much from cold on the march, and then at the junction of the Punjshuhur and Koh-damun rivers, in the plain of Beghram, near Charikar, he founded the city of Alexandria apud Caucasum, about which there has been so much dispute. Its identity with the Beghram ruins has been established in a late essay of Major Rawlinson, then at Kandahar, and the whole story of Arrian confirms the site. Here Alexander wintered, and at the first opening of spring in the following year, 329 B. C., crossed the Hindoo Koosh to attack Bessus. I consider it most probable that the passage was made from Charikar by the Gorebund or Purwandura Passes, for Drapsacus, which was attacked immediately after the traverse, was evidently the present Indrab, the fortress which gave so much trouble to Chungeez Khan.

The immediate effect of this line of operation was to drive Bessus out of the whole country between the Oxus and Hindoo Koosh, and to cut him off from retreat into Kashghur. He had fomented another insurrection at Herat, and sent 2,000 horse to support it, while Alexander was making the Huzara passage, prior to wintering in the Kabool valley; but this was deseated by the garrison left in the new city, aided by a detachment sent back, without requiring Alexander followed thither with a light force, Alexander's presence. Bessus, therefore, on making a rapid march of 600 stadia in two days, the passage of the Hindoo Koosh being effected, while the bulk of his army returned southward retired at once to the mountains of Sogdiana, more leisurely, and moved down to the Pontus, Nautaka, supposed to be Karshee or Nukhshab, or inland sea, into which the Helmund dis- being the position he took up to watch the furcharges itself. Artakhan was evacuated on his ther course of events. Alexander took Bulkh approach, whereupon Alexander turned south- and all the country south of the Oxus, and esward also, and the Persian governor of the|tablished six stations, according to Quintus Cursouthern districts, called Zarangai or Drangæ (Seestan), having fled eastward to the Indus, Alexander returned again into the mountains, and remained some time there, while he built the fort before mentioned on the site of Herat, to check the Arians. Here he received the submission of the tribes of the southern districts as far as Kandahar in Arachotia,‡ but it does not * Dr. Thirlwall supposes this Susia to be Toos, the ruins of which have been traced about seventeen miles N.N.W. of Mushud; but Toos would be in Parthia, and not in Aria, as thus situated.

+ All the Persian poems and traditions mention Astakhar as the place whence Alexander marched towards India, but the Astakhar of the Shahnama is the capital of Persia. The great Roostum was a native of Seestan.

Arrian is cited as authority for Alexander's having marched by Kandahar to Kabool, and by Bamian to Bulkh; but Arrian only says the Arachotians submitted, not that Alexander ever went into their country. His words are,-Tavra de diaпpagaμeνος πρέπει ως επι Βακτρα τε και Βησσον, Δραγγας τε και Δραγωγούς εν τη παροδο παραστησαμενος. Παρέστησατο δε και τους Αραχωτούς και σατραπην κατέστησεν επ' αυτούς Μένωνα. Επήλθε δε και των Ινδών τους προσχώρους Αρα. χώτοις ξυμπαντα δε ταύτα έθνη δια χιονος με πολλης, και την απορία, &c. Having finished these things, he set off for Bactria and Bessus, in the route having established his authority over the Drangæ and Dragogi; he also established his authority over the Ara

tius, to guard and command the passes of the mountains. He then crossed the Oxus on skins, at a point where the river was rapid and deep, and had a sandy bottom, which is the character of all the fords about Bulkh. Bessus was betrayed and given up before Alexander reached his position at Karshee, and thereupon Alexander followed up his success by seizing Markanda (Samarkund); and he thence continued his march, meeting with no serious opposition, to the Sir or Jaxartes, called by Arrian the Eastchoti, and appointed Menon their Satrap. He came then into the country of the Indians, bordering on that of the Arachoti; and all these nations he reached through much snow, and in great want of necessary supplies, and with much suffering to the troops." This shows he passed through the Huzara country, north of the open plains of Seestan and Kandahar, for in crossing them to the Kabool valley, even in October, his army would suffer from extreme cold. He crossed apparently by the route, and in the season, when Babur suffered so much on his return from Herat to Kabool. If the march was made in the season when there is snow at Kandahar, and by that route, the passage to Ghuzni, and especially over the mountains between Ghuzni and Kabool, must have been quite closed.

* I much regret never having met with this essay, and doubt not that it would have thrown light on many points which are still obscure

ern Tanais. He crossed this river to punish the Scythian cavalry, who had inflicted on him some loss as they retired before him through Sogdiana. Alexander fought on the other side of the Sir a sharp cavalry action, in which he was wounded severely by an arrow in the leg, his fibula or smaller leg bone being broken; he gained the victory, however, and dislodged the enemy from a mountain, supposed to be that opposite to Khojund, with a loss stated at 20,000

men.

Alexander remained some time on the Jaxartes, and commenced building a city or fort near Khojund. He at the same time summoned all the tribes to a general convention to be held at Zariaspe (Huzarasp on the Oxus), in the coming winter; but while he was so occupied in advance, the nomade tribes of the Kizil-koom desert and Lower Jaxartes rose on the garrisons he had left in his rear, and under Spitamenes, an active and energetic partisan, besieged Mar kanda. Alexander, on the first news of the insurrection, retraced his steps towards Markanda, reducing all the cities on his way without difficulty, until he came to Cyropolis, which is probably Kesh, or Shuhur Subz, where Persian tradition fixes the birth of the great Cyrus. This siege proved difficult, for the city is described as large and populous, the walls strong and high, and the inhabitants warlike. He mastered it at length, effecting an entrance by the river bed, during a season of drought, and then returned to secure his posts on the Jaxartes, sending a division to strengthen Markanda. While he was encamped on the banks of this river, seeking to inspire the Scythians with a dread of his power, the division of his army sent for the relief of Markanda was defeated and utterly destroyed on the banks of the Zurafshan* river by Spitamenes. This called Alexander back to Samarkund, and after ravaging the valley of the Zurafshan, he moved to Huzarasp, where he had proposed to winter, in order to hold the convention before proclaimed, and to confirm, by policy, the influence his victories had established. It was here that Clitus was slain, and that Scythians from the Western Tanais (the Wolga or Don) came and endeavored to persuade Alexander to attempt the passage that way back to Europe; but Alexander excused himself, saying he must first conquer India, and then would come by the route of Europe round that way to the Tanais and Huzarasp.f

|

Early in the spring of 328 B. C., while the snow was still on the ground, Alexander took the field again, for reduction of the cities of Sogdiana, which still held for Spitamenes. His army marched in five divisions, Alexander heading that which took the mountain road by Samarkund. Soon after the march, Huzarasp was attempted by surprise, but saved by its garrison. Spitamenes then made a gallant attack on the left division, led by Conus, which skirted the desert, and had marched apparently for relief of! the garrisons of the Jaxartes; it was met by Spitamenes while countermarching for the defence of Huzarasp, consequently on the attack of that post. Being defeated by Conus, Spitamenes was deserted by his followers, who, hearing that Alexander himself also was approaching, cut off their chief's head, and sent it as an atonement for their own transgressions.

Being thus rid of this active enemy, Alexander had leisure to reduce the mountain forts of Sogdiana, lying between the sources of the Jaxartes and the desert west of Samarkund; and, the season being occupied in establishing posts and settling this country, he wintered again north of the Oxus, at Karshee, and there received reports from all the governors and satraps he had left in the conquered territories.

In the spring of 327 B. C., while the snow was yet heavy on the ground, Alexander commenced his march through the mountains towards Bulkh, reducing the places that refused to submit. He was in this inarch much distressed for provisions, but every fort had its depôt, and the store of one of these, held by a chief named Chorienes, furnished a two-months' supply to the whole army, at a time when it was in great want. As the spring advanced, Alexander, taking the route of Bulkh, approached the Hindoo Koosh again, and crossed it to the city he had built in the plain of Beghram. There he was net by Taxiles, an Indian chief, whose capital (Taxila) was across the Indus. This chief urged an advance in that direction, with the design of bringing to subjection a rival chief of Peucilaotis, supposed to be in the country near Peshawur. Alexander sent with this Indian chief Hephæstion and the bulk of his army, marching them by the route of the Cophenes river. Under the raja's guidance, Hephæstion passed without obstruction downwards, apparently by the Khyber, and having captured Peucilaotis, set himself, with the aid of Taxiles, to build a * Arrian calls the river of Markanda, Polytime-mined to reduce the mountainous tract of counbridge at Attuk. Alexander himself was detertus, the much-valued; Zurafshan, is gold-scattering. The description of its losing itself in the sandstry lying between the Cophenes and the Hindoo of the Bokhara Desert confirms the identity, if the Koosh, and the number of rivers passed, and the name and other circumstances had left any doubt on description of each given by Arrian, correspond the subject. exactly with what we now know to be in existThe site of Huzarasp, no less than the similar-ence in that tract, though the names of several ity of name, proves it to be the Zariaspe referred to. places and of races of people differ, as might be It is on the Oxus, in the advanced position suited to expected. the convocation, and is exactly the place the Scythians of the Steppes towards the Wolga might be expected to come to, while the river being navigable gave all the desired facilities for forming a depôt. The next year's march back to Samarkund establishes the correctness of this position, and it is further confirmed by the communications held at it with the Chorasmeni (Kharizmecs), Kheeva and

Alexander, from Beghram, passed down the Punj-shushur river, and crossed the Tagao with difficulty; then, reducing two cities, (the second

Orgunj, the capitals of Kharizm, being only a few marches down the stream of the Oxus. The limits of ancient Bactria might well extend down the Oxus as far as Huzarasp.