11. Tremolite

12. Antophyllite

13. Strahlstein

3 Na Si3+2 Fe Si®.

Mg Si2 +

Mg Si2.

Fe

Mg Si2 + Fe Si2.

Ċa Si3 + 3 Mg Sio. Fe Si* + 9 Mg Si. Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, Si. 14. Basaltic hornblende Ca, Mg, Fe, Äl, Si. AUGMENTATION, in music of the olden time, was, as Maister Morley tells us, an increasing of the value of the notes above their common and essential value,' and indicated by a sign. It is unnecessary to dilate on this term, which, as well as many others of the same date, has long been known only to musical antiquaries.

Titian's Venus holding a Mirror to Cupid,' or Parmi giano's 'Madonna.' The collection of models from the an tique, which occupy another apartment in the town-hall, is less in character with its external device, Publico consilic, publicæ saluti,' than a very complete and well-arranged collection of another description, containing the archives of the town. Adjoining this fine structure is the Perlach Tower, which is ascended by a staircase of 500 steps; and the Arsenal,' the façade of which is embellished with a noble group, representing the Demon of War vanquished by Michael the Archangel,' the work of Reichel Von Rain, the Bavarian sculptor. The episcopal palace (the town being still the seat of a bishop's see) is on the Frohnhof near the cathedral; it was under this roof that Luther held his celebrated disputation with Cajetan, the papal legate, in the year 1518, and under the same roof, on the memorable 25th June, 1530, this great reformer presented the corner-stone of the Lutheran faith, commonly called the Confession of Augsburg, to the emperor Charles the Fifth. Augsburg was the place from which that sovereign, urged by the undaunted bearing of the protestants of Germany, proclaimed the Interim, or religious armistice, which recognised them as a distinct and independent communion. Augsburg also witnessed the signature of the treaty of 1555, which sheathed the sword of religious strife, and left the protestants in the full enjoyment of their dearly-purchased immunities. The venerable walls of this palace were, in 1817, converted partly into offices for the government of the province, and partly into apartments for the occasional residence of royalty. Among other conspicuous buildings are the Halle,' a handsome commercial mart and storehouse, which has a machine for weighing loaded waggons and merchandise in bulk, and is now partially used for judicial proceedings; the public library, which is rich in Greek books and manuscripts; the Franciscan academy of arts; the school of the arts; and the Cathedral,' which was built in the fifteenth century on the site of the ancient Basilica, erected in the tenth. This edifice is 350 feet in length, and of the Gothic order; its main aisle is 45 feet in breadth, and the side aisles are fitted up with four-and twenty chapels, independently of several pictorial embellishments of some merit, and two stone portals which divide the main aisle from the choir; there is also a side door of bronze, carved with figures and emblems, dating from the year 1048. A visit to St. Ulrich's church, which is 310 feet in length and 94 in width, will be amply repaid by the prospect from its lofty steeple (which is 148 feet higher than the monument in London) of the town and its environs, to say nothing of that fine specimen of sculpture called the Altar of the Crucifixion, and other striking objects. Of the numerous monasteries, convents, and ecclesiastical structures of Augsburg, fifteen churches only remain, five of which are appropriated to the use of protestants. In charitable endowments there are few spots of the same extent so rich; and we believe that three-quarters of a million sterling are rather below than above the aggregate capital which those endowments possess. At the head of them stands the institution called the 'Fuggerei,' established in the year 1519 by two brothers of the Fugger family, who were the founders of more than one earldom of the present day; it is a town of itself, situated in the suburb of St. James, has its own church, consists of three streets and as many lanes, has three gates, and contains 107 lodgings, let out to indigent natives of the town, at a rent of two shillings per annum. A philanthropist of our own times, Lawrence Schaetzler, a banker of Augsburg, has more than emulated this good work of commercial munificence: first, by esta blishing a school of industry for 100 poor children and orphans of this his native town, in 1813 and then, twelve months afterwards, by erecting an asylum within the walls of the old Dominican monastery for the reception and partial maintenance and employment of sixty-three aged males, forty-seven operatives, and seventy-six children, who are educated on the Lancasterian system To these institutions may be added an admirably-conducted orphan asylum, and a bank for savings. An equally liberal and enlightened spirit has animated the more affluent classes in making provision for the instruction of their humbler fellow-citizens: every religious community in the town has schools of its own; the twenty-seven week-day schools are attended by nearly 2000 children, the Sunday schools by upwards of a thousand, and the three female schools of industry by fou hundred. Between five and six hundred youths of superio

AUGSBURG, the capital of the Bavarian circle of the Upper Danube, stands on a gentle eminence in an agreeable and fertile country, near the influx of the Wertach into the Lech, and between both these rivers, in 48° 21′ N. lat., and 10° 54′ E. long. It lies 1460 feet above the level of the ocean, about forty miles N.W. of Munich; and both from its position, and the number of main roads which traverse it, has long formed one of the central points for the internal commerce of Germany. It is divided into three quarters, the upper, centre, and lower towns, independently of the suburb of St. James, which lies outside of the walls; it is intersected by four canals, which supply the mills and manufactories of the town with water. The exterior boundary of the glacis has been converted into delightful walks, along which the circuit of the city may be made in a couple of hours; and within the glacis runs a wall flanked with towers, bulwarks, and ditches, which are crossed by four principal and six minor entrances. The streets, with few exceptions, are narrow and irregularly built, and the pavement annoying to the feet, being composed of small flints-though its disposition in a mosaic form is not unpleasing to the eye. The general appearance of the town is however much improved by a variety of handsome buildings and squares, and enlivened, though it can scarcely be said to be embellished, by the manner in which the generality of the houses are painted with stripes, either green, red, or yellow -always separated by white. Every street and lane is provided with reservoirs of water for the use of the adjoining houses, and a separate work for the purpose of forcing the water into them.

The finest edifice in Augsburg is the town hall, which was built by Holl, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and contains the Golden Hall,' perhaps the most splendid apartment in Germany, its length being 110, its breadth 58, and its height 52 feet; it was used for the election of two kings of the Romans, and was decorated at a great expense with painted ceilings and frescoes, by Krager and Rottenhammer, the former of whom was elevated by the gratitude of his fellow citizens to the Burgomasters chair. This hall, with the four royal apartments adjoining, has since been appropriated to the purpose of a picture-gallery. Among the thousand paintings which it contains (the whole arranged in chronological order), it is particularly rich in specimens of the German school: Kranach's Samson and Dalilah; Albert Durer's Maximilian the First; Krager's Last Judgment; and Rottenhammer's River Gods of Augsburg, stand at the head of the sa ies; but few will feel disposed to prefer even such as these to Guido's Sleeping Infant;'

rank are educated in the protestant gymnasium and the catholic seminary; and there are, besides, two endowed schools for females, the one founded by Barbara Von Stettenschen, who died in 1805, for protestants, and the other conducted by the English sisterhood, for catholics; as well as a polytechnic institution.

| the sixteenth century, even in the seventeenth they were above 1000; and in the middle of the eighteenth they increased again to nearly 1300; from which number they have since gradually declined to their present average. We may add, that at the close of the sixteenth century the number of its inhabitants is stated to have been 80,000.

Augusta Vindelicorum' (the city of the Vandals on the Lech), and hence comes the name of Augsburg. There is nothing to note in its subsequent fortunes until the fifth century, when it was pillaged by the Huns; it afterwards came under the dominion of the Frankish sovereigns, and in 788 was almost razed to the ground during the war which raged between Charlemagne and Tassilo of Bavaria. Upon the dissolution of the Frankish monarchy, Augsburg fell under the sway of the dukes of Swabia; but growing rich by its commerce and manufactures, it gradually shook off all external authority, purchased its independence of its episcopal sovereigns, was recognised as a free state by the German emperors, and retained its rank as a free imperial city for upwards of five hundred years- namely, from 1276 to 1806. From about the twelfth until the sixteenth century, it was a leading member of the famous Swabian Confederacy, which included Ratisbon, Nuremberg, Constance, and other commercial emporia of that day. In the fourteenth century it was the chief medium of intercourse between the north and south of Europe and the Levant, and supplied the markets of northern Germany, Russia, Poland, and other countries, with woollens and linens; and it retained its mercantile pre-eminence until the transatlantic discoveries of the Spaniards and Portuguese, at the close of the fifteenth century, opened new channels to commercial enterprise. It was at this period of its highest prosperity that the single banking establishment of the Fuggers of Augsburg recruited the finances of Philip II., and enabled him to support the sanguinary warfare carried on by the League in France, and by his own generals in the Low Countries. Previously to these times (namely, in the year 136×) the plebeian order in Augsburg raised the standard of insurblished a democratic form of government. This endured about 160 years, at the close of which the patrician order, abetted in their attempt by Charles V., once more regained the ascendency. In the seventeenth century, the rise of Frankfort on the Main inflicted a blow on the prosperity of the town from which it has never recovered. Augsburg indeed has ceased to be a place of importance in the circulation of exchange in Europe, and Frankfort is now the chief money-market of central Germany. A law was made in Augsburg (the date we are not acquainted with), that an Augsburg merchant might, at any time between the acceptance and the maturity of a bill drawn on him from any foreign place, cancel his acceptance; in other words, his acceptance was not binding. Whether this law now exists we are not quite sure, nor can we undertake to say how much of the decline of the commerce of Augsburg is due to it. Under the settlement of Germany, in 1802, Augsburg was recognised as one of the six Hanse Towns, which were declared independent of the German empire; but three years afterwards it was merged into the dominions of Bavaria under the treaty of Presburg; and in March, 1806, it was surrendered accordingly into his Bavarian majesty's hands, by the French general René, acting under the orders of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Among the public embellishments of the town we must The emperor Augustus planted a colony here, about twelve not omit to notice the Grand Parade in front of the cathe-years before the Christian æra, to which he gave the name of dral; Maximilian-square, next to St. Ulrich's church; and several open areas, which are adorned with handsome fountains the general character of these embellishments shows the close relationship which once subsisted between Augsburg and the Italian states. In the better days of Augsburg, indeed, when the munificence of its citizens was lavishly bestowed on the fine arts, and its native school produced such men as Rugendas, Hecker, Holzer, Rieger, and Frey, the fronts of every respectable dwelling shone with the glories of the pencil, and the whole Scriptures might be studied in fresco illustrations out of doors. Not only the fine arts, but science and the belles-lettres found patrons in the merchants of Augsburg: their cabinets and libraries vied with their gardens and mansions: the first tulip known in the west of Europe was brought to Augsburg from Constantinople, and planted by Heerwart, in 1557. Such, in short, was the splendid appearance of this city at the close of the sixteenth century, that Bentivoglio himself was tempted to exclaim, on witnessing it, Questa Augusta certamente ha dell' Augusto negli edifici, nelle strade, et nel popolo The principal sources of the present affluence of Augsburg are banking and exchange operations, and the transit of merchandise. It is a staple town also for the deposit and sale of the wines of Italy, Switzerland, and the south of Germany, and still enjoys repute for its plate and jewelry. It has above 200 mercantile establishments, and an annual eirculation, varying in value from three to four millions sterling, in bills and merchandise. The linen and cotton manufactures have decreased, within the last forty years, from 1200 to scarcely more than 200 looms; the woollen and linen-yarn spinneries, which formerly circulated nearly 20,000!. a week in wages alone, have of late dwindled into comparative insignificance; but the manufacture of parch-rection against their patrician fellow-citizens, and estament, and particularly of plain and coloured paper, continues to thrive. Augsburg has indeed strong claims to the merit of having invented the art of making paper from rags, which came into use here as early as the year 1330-a date at which, we believe, no record is extant of its use elsewhere. Its mechanics, too, from their experience in wood-cutting and in stamping cards in colours, had acquired that species of skill which rendered the process of printing an easy task to their hands: they were among the first, therefore, to avail themselves of Guttenberg's invention. Latin Bibles, bearing the date 1466, and a legend printed in 1471, both from the Augsburg press, are sufficient evidence of the fact. Great numbers of the ordinary class of books, prints, and charts are engraved and circulated throughut Germany from Augsburg; and the present Baron Cotta's father, the proprietor of the celebrated Allgemeine Zeitung, and the founder of two popular periodical works, the Morgenblatt and Abendzeitung, selected Augsburg for the establishment of one of his four extensive presses, which is set in motion by one of Bolton's steamengines. This press was constructed by Koenig, the finest and earliest specimen of whose mechanical skill is to be seen at the Times office, in Printing-house Square, Blackfriars. The machine at Augsburg, which consists of three presses, throws off from five to ten thousand copies of the Allgemeine Zeitung in the course of four or five hours, and, with the assistance of eight boys, does the work of sixty pressmen; and it is likewise used for printing the two literary journals. No branch of industry, however, is in a more thriving state than the woollen manufactures of this town, which give employment to nearly six hundred looms. The working of the latter is greatly facilitated by the canals supplied from the Lech, which set 140 wheels in motion, and are traversed by 220 bridges and crossings. Augsburg produces about eighty tons of beet-root sugar per annum; and manufactures mathematical and musical instruments, paper-hangings, printing-types, and carpets, and a variety of articles of pure luxury. Its population at the present day amounts to about 35,000, of whom rather more than one-third are protestants; but it was much greater in former times, for the yearly average of births, which are at present under 900, was upwards of 2200 in the beginning of

Augsburg is the birth-place of Holbein, Holl, and other eminent artists. The gardens and places of public resort around it, as well as the rides and walks in its delightful environs, afford a resource which will agreeably diversify a lengthened residence in the town; nor less so the numerous societies within its walls, both musical and literary, with its libraries and museums.

AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF, the name given to the profession of faith of the Protestant Lutheran Church, which was drawn up by Melanchthon, with Luther's approbation, in order to be laid before the Emperor Charles V. at the great Diet held at Augsburg in June, 1530. It was on that occasion solemnly read in the German language by the Chancellor of Saxony, after which two copies of the Confession, one in German and the other in Latin, were deli vered to the Emperor, bearing the signatures of John Elector of Saxony, George Marquis of Brandenburg, Ernest Duke of Luneburg, Philip Landgrave of Hesse,

and Wolfgang Prince of Anhalt; besides those of the free |
town of Nuremberg, and other cities. The Confession was
immediately afterwards printed, and, being translated into
various languages, was spread over Europe. It has ever
since continued to be the rule of the Lutheran Church in
matters of faith. It consists of twenty-eight articles, twenty-
one of which state the belief of the Lutherans on the prin-
cipal tenets of religion; and the other seven consist of refu-
tations of certain points of either dogma or discipline as
maintained by the Roman Catholic Church, and on account
of which the Lutherans separated from the communion of
Rome. Zuingle and the other Swiss and French reformers
did not subscribe to the Confession of Augsburg, as they
differed from it on several points, particularly about the
Lord's Supper. The style of the Confession is clear and
fluent; the matter was chiefly supplied by Luther in the
seventeen articles of Torgau, which he had presented to
the Elector of Saxony the year before. Melanchthon, while
drawing up the Confession, had frequent conferences with
Luther, who was then staying at Coburg, not far from
Augsburg. The Papal theologians, headed by Faber, wrote
a confutation of the Augsburg Confession, which was like-
wise read before the Diet in August of the same year. Me-
lanchthon answered them in his Apology for the Augs-
burg Confession, which was published in 1531, and which
constitutes one of the books of authority of the Luthe-
rans which were published, including the Confession, at
Dresden, in 1580. Ernest Solomon Cyprian has written a
good history of the Augsburg Confession, and Webber a
Critical History of the same, Frankfurt, 1783. (Schrockh's
Kirchengeschichte; and Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History,
and Notes, by Dr. Murdoch.)

the same writer has fully established the fact that the first two tribes possessed higher privileges than the third, and this in a more marked manner in the offices of a religious character, so that the number four, two for each of the privileged tribes, seems to point to a similar distinction in the highly-important powers of the augurate. On the other hand, though Cicero's evidence is in favour of the number six, his mode of accounting for that number is wholly at variance with the reasons of the augurs as reported by Livy. Again, if, as Cicero implies, Romulus was a member of the college, his successors in the regal power must have succeeded likewise to the augural office, a supposition in no respect confirmed by history, and scarcely compatible with what is reported of Tarquin's dispute with Attus Navius. Moreover, if such a power had passed through the hands of the kings, it remains to be asked what course was pursued at the change of the government from the regal to the consular form. At that revolution the political powers of the king devolved upon the consuls, or prætors as they were at first called, those of a religious character upon the priest, called rex sucrificulus; but there is no trace of evidence to show that the authority of the latter ever included the powers of the augurate. Under this view of the subject, Niebuhr is of opinion that originally the Ramnensian tribe possessing the chief powers of the state had its two augurs; that at a later period, when the Titienses were admitted to a share of these privileges, two others were added. This is confirmed by the statement of Cicero that Numa added two to the college, for the name of that king is always connected with the privileges of the second tribe. Livy, in his wish to reconcile the different accounts, has been driven to the supposition that when the AUGSBURG GAZETTE. [See ALLGEMEINE ZEI- Ogulnian law was brought forward, there may have been TUNG.] two vacancies by death; but it is not probable that the AUGST, a village in the canton of Basle, in Switzer-patricians would allow themselves to lose two seats in the land, built on part of the ground occupied by the antient college through such an accident, especially as even after Augusta Rauracorum, a Roman colony under the empire. the law was brought forward it was not too late for the The remains still existing are not very considerable; they remaining augurs to fill up the supposed vacancies-for in have been minutely detailed by Schoeffer in his Alsatia Illus- them the election resided. The Ogulnian law, which was trata. Medals of Roman emperors have been found in brought forward by Q. and Cn. Ogulnius, and passed in abundance in the ground. Augst is situated on the left or the year B.C. 307, opened the pontifical and the augural southern bank of the Rhine, six miles S.E. of Basle. colleges to the plebeians. (Liv. x. 6, 9.) In the latter, five plebeians were associated with the four patricians; and this number remained to the time of Sulla, B.C. 81, who increased it to fifteen. (Liv. Epit. 89.) Lastly, among the many extraordinary powers conferred upon Augustus in B.C. 29 was the right of electing augurs at his pleasure, whether there was a vacancy or not; so that from that period the number of the college ceased to be definite. (Dion, xli. 20.)

AUGUR. The earliest inhabitants of Italy, like all rude nations, imagined that they saw in every unusual occurrence a manifestation of the will of heaven. The power of interpreting the signs thus furnished by the gods was thought to depend upon a peculiar talent conferred upon the favoured mortal from his birth, but a certain discipline was necessary to give to the talent its full development. A superstition so deeply seated in the minds of the people was turned to account in the political constitution of Rome, by the establishment of a college of augurs, whose duty it was on all occasions of importance, whether of a public or private nature, by certain arts to ascertain and report the pleasure or displeasure of the gods. Romulus himself was said to have been skilled in the arts of divination from his earliest youth, and at the foundation of the city the claims of the rival brothers were decided by augury. The story of Tanaquil, of Servius Tullius, and still more the contest between the elder Tarquin and Attus Navius, afford additional evidence of the peculiar nature of this Roman superstition.

The institution of the college of augurs may be referred to the very earliest period of Roman history; for the assertion of Livy (i. 18, and iv. 4), that there were no augurs in the reign of Romulus is not merely opposed to the general tenor of the Iristory of Rome, but directly contradicted by Cicero. (De Republica, ii. 9.) The original number of augurs is again differently reported. Cicero, himself an augur, says that Romulus associated three others with himself, and that Numa added two. (Ibid. 14.) Livy reports that in the opinion of the augurs of his time the number of the college was necessarily related to the number of the antient tribes, and that consequently there must have been at the beginning either three or six; so that each of the three tribes should have either one or two augurs. On the other hand, the same author found it recorded in the annals of Rome that, prior to the Ogulnian law, there were but four members of the college. In these different accounts Niebuhr has pointed out strong reasons for giving the preference to the last. The notion of there having been three or six seems to have been a mere inference from the number of the tribes; and if all the tribes had stood on an equal footing, the argument would have had much weight. But

But a more important point than the number of the augurs was the mode of election. At first, the augurs, like the other priests, were elected by the patrician assembly of the Curies, called the Comitia Curiatà: but no election was complete without the sanction of the augury; so that the college possessed a virtual veto upon the admission of all members into it. (Dionys. ii. 22.) This power was not unlikely to lead to a gradual usurpation of the elective right; and thus, as early as the year B.C. 452, we find it the practice of the college to fill up vacancies by co-optation as it was called, that is, by the votes of the existing augurs. (Liv. iii. 32.) This mode of election continued to the third consulship of Marius, B.C. 103, when the tribune Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus carried a law, that in case of any vacancy in any of the sacred colleges, seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen by lot should, by a majority of the votes of the said seventeen tribes, nominate a successor, whom the college should be bound to elect. (Cic. contra Leg. Agrar. ii. 7, &c.) The return of Sulla to power restored the election to the colleges; but in the consulship of Cicero (B.C. 63) T. Attius Labienus, with the support of Cæsar, procured the reversal of Sulla's law. (Dion, xxxvii. 37.) After the death of Cæsar, Antony restored the old law, at least in the election of the chief pontiff, and therefore, most probably, in that of the other priests. (Dion, xliv. 53.) We have already mentioned that the emperors had the privilege of appointing augurs at their own discretion.

The ceremonies and superstitions which constituted the supposed science of the augurs would be tedious to enumerate; but that which especially characterized the augural office was the pretended power of ascertaining the divine will from the flights of birds. For this purpose the augur selected some elevated spot, on which he sat with his head veiled and his face turned towards some par

what crimes he might commit. (Plin. Ep. iv. 8; Plutarca, Romaica, 97.) On the pecuniary advantages of the office there are no very definite statements. That they received money in some shape from the public treasury is indeed positively stated (Dionys. ii. 6); and the poet Attius has made a bad pun at their expense, charging them with extracting aurum (gold) from the aures (ears) of those who believed in them; and the public money may perhaps be traced in the dinners given by the augurs on their election, which were celebrated in the annals of Roman gastronomy. (Cic. ad Fam. vii. 16; Varro, R. R. iii. 6; Plin. H. N. x. 23.) In the latter years of the republic many of the duties of the augurs were performed in the most lax manner. At the inauguration of a magistrate, says Dionysius (ii. 6), speaking of his own time, the ceremony is a mere shadow of what it was. The candidate takes his seat, rises, repeats a set prayer in the open air, an augur then declares he hears thunder on the left, when in fact there was none, and the candidate forthwith enters upon his magistracy.

ticular quarter of the heaven, varying perhaps according to the occasion; for the accounts differ so much that, while Livy says it was the east, we have the authority of Varro for the south, and Frontinus for the west. Then the augur, with a bent wand or crook, free from knots, called a lituus, marked off a certain portion of the heavens and of the earth, within which his observations were to be made, and again divided this portion into two parts-the right and left. The space so defined in the mind of the augur was called a templum, and the steadfast observation of the augur directed upon it may probably account for the meaning of the Latin word con-templa-ri, to contemplate, which has been adopted into our own language. The gods then signified their approbation by the appearance of birds on the left, and the augury was complete. For some purposes the whole circumference of the heavens, together with the corresponding parts of the earth, were divided, according to the rules of the art, by lines directed to the cardinal points, and others parallel to these. (Liv. i. 18, Dionys. ii. 70, and the appendix to the translation of Niebuhr, vol. ii.) So prominent AUGUST. The month of August was originally called a place did the feathery creation hold as the interpreters of Sextilis, being the sixth month in the Alban or Latin calen the divine will, that aui, the Latin for bird, is the chief ele- dar; and this name, as is stated, it retained in the calenment in the term augur, as it is also in the nearly equiva- dars of Romulus, Numa Pompilius, and Julius Cæsar. lent word auspex (avispex). In the latter, the second syllable Since Numa's reform, however, it has held only the eighth is deduced from spec, look, so that the word signifies bird-place in the series of months. In the Alban calendar, observer. The second element of the word augur does not Sextilis consisted of twenty-eight days; in that of Romulus admit of satisfactory explanation from any existing word in of thirty; Numa reduced the number to twenty-nine; Julius the Latin language. We have called the terms nearly Cæsar restored it to thirty; and Augustus Cæsar, from equivalent, and if Plutarch's authority had been sufficient whom it derived its new name of August, extended the (Romaica, c. 72), we might have dropped the qualifying number of days to thirty-one, which has continued ever since. adverb. But a Roman antiquary would have pointed out It was originally proposed that September should bear many distinctions between them. The most important of the name of Augustus, from the emperor having been born these is, that the leading magistrates of Rome possessed in that month; but he preferred Sextilis, not only as it stood the auspices (Cic. De Leg. iii. 3) by virtue of their office, next to July, which had been recently named after his prewhile the term augurium never refers to any other than an decessor Julius, but for the same reasons which influenced augur. The name auspex does not appear to have been in the decree of the Senate detailed by Macrobius, in his early times a technical word, and indeed was but rarely Saturnalia (edit. Bipont. i. 261), viz., that since it was in employed; but the derivatives from it were frequently used, this month that the Emperor Cæsar Augustus had entered and applied with considerable latitude to the augurs as well upon his first consulship-had celebrated three triumphs in as to the magistrates. The objects of the auspices and the city-had received the allegiance of the soldiers who auguries were nearly the same, and the means employed of occupied the Janiculum--had subdued Egypt, and put an a similar nature. Moreover, all legal disputes about the end to civil war-it appeared that it was, and had been, proauspices of the magistrates seem to have been referred to pitious to the empire; and the Senate therefore ordained that the augurs. Under all these circumstances we shall not Sextilis should thenceforward bear the name of Augustus. attempt to draw a very nice line between them.

There were, as we have already stated, besides the movements of birds, a variety of other occurrences in the physical world which, as expressive of the will of heaven, came under the cognizance of the augurs. We shall not attempt | to give a catalogue of all the forms which the superstitions of man may take; but absurd as these forms may have been, the political power of the augurs was most substantial. The election of a king, a consul, a dictator, a prætor, a curule ædile, of the various priests, pontifex, augur, vestal, flamen, &c., all were void unless the auspices were favourable. A general could not cross the pomerium, or sacred boundary of Rome, the frontier of the state, or even a river, without the sanction of his birds. To engage an enemy in defiance of these interpreters of the will of heaven was sure to entail present or future defeat. In the assignment of public lands the science of the augur was required to mark out the different allotments. Among the patricians, the presence of an augur was necessary to render valid many of the proceedings of private life, as marriage and adoption; and the same political body found in the auspices a powerful argument against the rising claims of the plebeians. The auspices, they said, were their peculiar privilege, and as the leading magistrates could not fulfil their duties without such divine assistance, there was an insuperable bar to | the election of plebeians. Of the three comitia, or legislative assemblies, that of the curies, being the special assembly of the patricians, was of course subject to the auspices; the same was the case with the mixed assembly of the centuries; but that of the tribes was free from such control. Of the two last (for the comitia curiata became obsolete) the assembly of the centuries was the most important, as possessing the election of the leading magistrates; and so complete was the veto of an augur in this assembly, that if he but heard a clap of thunder, nay, if he but said he had heard one, and that falsely, the proceedings of the assembly were void. Such was the power of the augural office; and it was strengthened by the law that a man once created an augur was an augur for life, no matter

No. 147.

Gassendi (Kalend. Romanum, apud Græv. viii., col. 164) says that Commodus wished to have had the month Sextilis called by his own name.

The Flemings and Germans have adopted the word August for Harvest; Oogst maand is the harvest-month. (Hadr. Junius de Annis et Mensibus, apud Græv. Thesaur. viii., col. 217.) So the German Augst-wagen, a harvestwaggon (see Wachter, Glossar. German.); and the Dutch Oogsten, to reap or gather corn from the field (Sewel's Dutch Diction.) The Spaniards also have the verb Agostàr, to gather in harvest; and both French and Spaniards have phrases for making harvest, faire l'Aoust, and hazer su Augusto.

Our Saxon ancestors named August Peod monað, the weed-month, as abounding in noxious and useless herbs. (Saxon Menolog., and Lye's Saxon Dict. in voce.)

Lammas Day, the first of the month, is also called the Gule of August (see Brand's Popular Antiq., i. 275), probably from the Gothic HIOL or IUL, a wheel, indicating that revolution of season which brought the return of harvest. This day, called by our Anglo-Saxon ancestors Hlaf-mærre, i.e. loaf mass, was the feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn.

(Compare Pitisci Lexicon Antiq., Græc. et Roman., v. Augustus; the different Treatises printed in Grævius's Collection; and Brady's Clavis Calendaria, i. 76.)

AUGUSTA. This title was first given to his wife Livia after the death of Augustus according to the will of the emperor. (Tac. Ann. i. 8.) It was afterwards conferred by Claudius on Agrippina (A.D. 51.), and by Nero on his wife Poppea as well as her daughter (A.D. 64). Eventually it became a common title, of the mother, wife, sister, or daughter of an emperor. [See AUGUSTUS.]

AUGUSTA. This name was also frequently adopted by towns, sometimes in place of, sometimes in addition to the previous name; also many new colonies received it. Thus we find Augusta in the country of the Salassi, now Aosta; Augusta Taurinorum, now Turin; Augusta Rauracorum, now Augst near Basle; Augusta Vindelicorum