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Aurillac has produced several persons of note; among them Gerbert, elevated to the Papacy under the title of Sylvester II.; Cinq-Arbres, a Hebraist of some note in the sixteenth century; the Maréchal and Cardinal de Noailles; Piganiol de la Force, author of an account of France; and J. B. Carrier, infamous for his atrocities at Nantes during the revolutionary period.

There are some basaltic columns in the immediate neighbourhood of the town, and in the suburbs are two mineral springs.

Aurillac, as already noticed, is capital of the department. The arrondissement or sub-prefecture of Aurillac extends over 796 square miles, or 509,440 acres, and has a population of about 95,000. (Dictionnaire Universel de la France; Piganiol de la Force; Malte-Brun; Balbi.)

AURO'RA BOREA'LIS, or northern day-break, so called because it usually appears at or near the north, and presents a light somewhat resembling that which precedes

sunrise.

The phenomena attending the Aurora Borealis are so various, in almost every particular, that no general definition can be given, and till more is known on the subject, any remarkable luminous appearance, towards the northern side of the horizon, taking place between sunset and sun

rise, must be considered as entitled to that name. The following description, extracted with abridgment from the French Encyclopædia, and enclosed in [], is an account of the most remarkable appearances of the kind.

[In the northern region of the horizon, but often towards the east or west, a horizontal cloud (nuéc) rises to some degrees of altitude, rarely more than 40°. Sometimes the blue sky is seen between this cloud and the horizon. It extends along an arc varying from 5° to 100°, sometimes more. It is sometimes whitish and brilliant, but often black and thick. Its upper edge is luminous and irregular, sometimes nearly parallel to the horizon, sometimes curved towards it. The higher part of the cloud has frequently a white and shining edge. After shooting a number of streamers, the darker part of the cloud generally changes, and becomes very luminous. The streamers continue to be shot from the upper edge, sometimes at some distance, sometimes very close to each other. Their light is very dazzling, and might lead a spectator to imagine he saw a shining liquor forced violently out of a syringe. The light is strongest, and the streamer narrowest, near the main body of the phenomenon. Columns of light issue upwards from openings in the main cloud, with a slow and uniform motion, becoming broader as they proceed. Their dimensions and

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time of duration are various, they are whitish, reddish, and sometimes blood-coloured, and after some time the appearance of the whole rainbow, as to colour, is presented. When several columns, emerging from different points, meet at the zenith, a small and dense meteor is formed, which appears to burn with more violence than either column by itself. This meteor is green, blue, or purple, and afterwards proceeds towards the south in the form of a small and clear cloud. When the columns cease, the first-mentioned horizontal meteor has little more than the appearance of morning twilight, and gradually disappears. The phenomenon lasts sometimes all night, and has sometimes been observed many nights in succession. The horizontal meteor sometimes keeps its place and its appearances unchanged for several hours. Sometimes the whole consists in nothing more than a gradual increase of light in the horizontal meteor, and the whole has been known to take place in a few minutes.]

It is evident that the preceding account relates only to the aurora which are seen in very northern latitudes, where

such phenomena are most frequent and most splendid. To show what has been seen in our own zone, we subjoin, from the work of M. de Mairan on the subject, the two most dissimilar appearances which we can find.

The aurora represented above was seen at Breuillepont, in Normandy, nearly in the latitude of Paris, September 26, 1726. It consisted entirely of streamers of light, as here represented, without any darker meteor.

The curious phenomenon represented on the opposite page was observed for several minutes, during an aurora which appeared at the same place, October 19, 1726.

The aurora borealis has been observed in almost every part of the world, but the frequency of its occurrence has varied remarkably from century to century. In England, hardly one such phenomenon appeared in the seventeenth and earlier part of the eighteenth century. Before that of 1716, according to Halley, no such thing had been recorded in England for more than eighty years, and none of any magnitude since 1574. No appearance is recorded in the

Transactions c the French Academy of Sciences, between 1666 and 1716. One recorded in the Berlin Miscellany for 1797 is called a very unusual phenomenon; and the one observed at Bologna, in 1723, was stated to be the first which had ever been seen there.

In the northern regions the frequency of the Aurora Borealis, as seen by travellers, led many to conclude that it was almost, if not quite, perpetual. But Celsius, who published, in 1733, 316 observations made in Sweden between the years 1706 and 1732, affirms the contrary expressly, and says that the oldest inhabitants of Upsala considered the phenomenon as a great rarity before 1716. Anderson, a native of Hamburgh, who wrote on the subject about the same time, says, that in Iceland the inhabitants themselves were greatly astonished at the frequent recurrence of the Aurora, which began to take place. Torfous, the historian

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of Denmark, himself an Icelander, who wrote in 1706, was old enough to recollect the time when the Aurora was an object of terror in his native country.

It was at one time thought that the Aurora Australis (as we must call it) was never seen in the southern hemisphere. The first account of any such appearance was given by Don Antonio Ulloa, to M. de Mairan. The former being at Cape Horn in 1745, and in one of the thick mists, which he describes as common in that climate, saw whenever the mist cleared off, a light on the southern horizon, to an elevation of about thirty degrees, sometimes of a reddish colour, sometimes like the light which precedes moon-rise, but occasionally more brilliant. In 744 an Aurora appeared at Cuzco, which very much terrified the Peruvians, who could with difficulty be persuaded by the Spanish governor that it was not a mark of divine displeasure.

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To go back to older times, the Aurora is described by Aristotle (cited by Mairan), as an appearance observed by night in calm weather, and resembling flame mingled with smoke, or the distant appearance of burning stubble. He remarks that the predominant colours are purple, bright red, and blood colour: from all of which, as well as from the whole description (see his work on Meteors, book i. chapters iv. and v.), there can be no doubt that he faithfully described the subject of this article.

Cicero, Pliny, Seneca, and various more modern writers, make allusions to, or descriptions of, similar phonomena: and there can be no doubt that the fiery appearance of armies fighting in the heavens, described by so many authors as having preceded remarkable events, must have been Aurora Boreales, heightened by the same force of imagination which converted comets into swords and other weapons. And the general terror which such appearances seem to have excited may be considered as adding a presumption to the evidence already produced, that the Aurora Borealis did not by any means occur so frequently before the eighteenth century, as it has done since.

In the work of M. de Mairan, already cited, which is, up to its date of publication (1754), a complete collection of all that was known, we find a table of all the recorded Auroræ from A.D. 583 to 1751. All the observations, including those of the same phenomenon by different observers, are 2137 in number; containing 1441 distinct phenomena. These are as follows

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miles. That the phenomenon is really atmospheric and not astronomical, is presumed from the diurnal rotation of the earth producing no effect upon its apparent position. It has been placed by some above the atmosphere, and Euler supposed it to be at the height of more than 1000 miles above the earth.

The position of the Aurora has, in a majority of cases, been rather towards the west than the east, and it is more frequently seen in calm than in windy nights. Among the great variety of detached remarks which have been made upon its attendant circumstances by different observers, we may notice the following assertions:-that there is always a copious deposition of dew during the phenomenon-that in the English Channel a hard gale from the south or southeast may be expected within twenty-four hours-that in northern climates very brilliant instances frequently succeed a sudden thaw after very cold weather: but as we have yet no satisfactory theory on the subject, it would be useless to multiply such observations, and we only give these to remind the casual observers of such phenomena, that all the meteorological circumstances attending them are considered worth noting down.

The rise of the auroral arches is mostly from N.W. to S.E.; but Professor Forbes, in 1826, traced one from the N.E. through the zenith, till it vanished nearly on the horizon in the S.W. This arch did not move in the direction of the magnetic meridian, and was diametrically against the wind. (See Reports of the British Association, vol. i. p. 256.)

The Aurora Borealis is said to be frequently accompanied by sound, which has been variously described, as a hissing, a murmuring, a rumbling, and a crackling noise. M. Mairan never could hear anything of the kind; but so many positive assertions have been made by other observers, that little doubt can be entertained of the occasional happening of this phenomenon. Pliny speaks of a noise of arms and sound of trumpets heard in the air.

The influence of the Aurora upon the magnetic needle must now be considered as an ascertained fact. It was first measured by Wargentin in 1750, but Halley and Celsius had previously noticed a similar circumstance. At the same time it does not appear that in every instance the effect takes place. Much discussion has arisen from the fact, that while in one place the needle is violently agitated, in another it is not disturbed at all. In one instance the variation of the needle has been detected at a place where the Aurora was not visible though it was seen in other parts. [See MAGNETISM.]

Our knowledge of the electrical phenomena of the Aurora is confined to the observation, that the electric matter may often be readily collected from the air during its continuance-though decided instances have occurred in which this was not the case-and that a very good representation of the auroral light may be obtained by passing the electric fluid through an exhausted receiver.

The Aurora Borealis must rather be looked upon as a phenomenon well worth observing, than as one which has been well observed. The reason is that, till of late years, there has been no concerted plan either as to the phenomena to be noted, or the manner of observing them. The British Association has lately directed its attention to the subject, and has published some recommendations (Reports, vol. ii. p. 486), to which we refer all who have any instrumental means. We shall select those points which do not require unusual apparatus.

1. Whether the Aurora is accompanied by any noise? 2. Whether there are any recurring periods of frequency and brilliancy?

3. What is the position of the phenomenon with respect to particular stars? (These may be ascertained on a globe, and very frequently the stars can be seen through the Aurora.)

4. The time of every phenomenon should be noted, and the watch used should be compared with a watchmaker's .egulator as soon as possible after the observations.

5. The longitude of the place should be taken from a map. 6. Any person who wishes regularly to watch for such phenomena, should look carefully at the horizon every evening about ten o'clock.

7. If there is an arch, the positions of its two boundaries should be noted by the way in which they pass among the stars. Notice should be taken whether one edge is better defined than the other; whether there is a clear sky or dark

cloud above or below; whether it terminates at the end in sky or in cloud; whether there is any dark band in it; whether, in its general composition, it is uniform or striated; whether stars can be seen through it.

8. If any change takes place in the situation or appearance of the arch, the time should be immediately noted, and then the change.

9. If there are beams or streamers, the time should be noted; then their position among the stars; then their height among the stars; their motion (whether vertical or horizontal); the velocity of motion (by the time of passing from one star to another); their changes; their permanency; whether they appear to affect the arch, or to be entirely in front of it.

10. If there be any black clouds in the luminous region, notice should be taken whether the streamers or the arch seem to have any relation to them; whether and in what manner they increase or disappear.

11. If there are waves or flashes of light, the observer should notice the time of beginning and finishing; the general extent of the flashes (up and down, as well as right and left); whether the flash is a real progress of light, or successive illumination of different places. 12. The existence and change of colours will of course be noticed.

13. It is useless to observe a common magnetic needle. The one used for this purpose should be suspended by a hair.

The various theories which have been proposed to account for the Aurora Borealis give nothing very satisfactory. Halley and Cotes attributed it to the watery vapours of the atmosphere; the former also suggested the effluvia, by which he at the same time proposed to explain the phenomena of magnetism. Mairan wrote the complete treatise already alluded to in support of a notion that the solar atmosphere (to which he attributed the zodiacal light) extended as far as that of the earth, and being driven towards the poles (how, is not very clear) causes the phenomena observed. Euler imagined it to proceed from part of the upper atmosphere, driven from its natural position by the impulse of light. Beccaria, Canton, Franklin, and others, advocate the electric fluid. The hypothesis of M. Libes is at least ingenious and experimental, and was at one time much adopted. He had observed, that when one of the compounds of oxygen and nitrogen was formed by the transmission of the electric spark through a mixture of those gases, reddish vapours were produced, which rose in the air. He found also, that in a mixture of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, the transmission of the electric spark caused the union of the oxygen and hydrogen (forming water) in preference to that of the oxygen and nitrogen. He imagined therefore that there was but little hydrogen in the upper strata of the atmosphere near the pole; so that while the usual discharges of electricity form water in lower latitudes, in consequence of the presence of hydrogen, a nitrous compound is formed in higher latitudes, where he supposes that there is little or no hydrogen.

This subject is one our knowledge of which we may expect to be rapidly increased. Should that be the case, we may provisionally refer the reader to LIGHTS, NORTH

ERN.

AURUNGABAD, a province of Hindustan, formerly known as the province or soubah of Ahmednuggur. It is situated in that part of Hindustan which bears the name of the Deccan, and lies between the 18th and 21st degree of north latitude. The limits of this province are not very clearly defined, and in common with those of otner Indian territories are subject to occasional alteration. To the north it has Guzerat, Kandeish, and Berar; to the east, Beeder and Hyderabad; to the south is Bejapoor, and to the west the Indian Ocean. Its length is estimated at 300 miles, and its breadth at 160 miles.

Aurungabad first became a province of the Mogul Empire in 1633 in the reign of Shah Jehan, when the fortress of Dowlatabad was taken by the Soubahdar of Kandeish, who thus put an end to the short-lived dynasty of the Abyssinian Malik Amber. The fortress just mentioned was then considered as the capital of the province, and continued to be so after the Nizams became independent of the Mogul government, and until, in more recent times, the encroachments of the Poonah Mahrattas made it an uncom-fortable residence for the Nizam, who removed the seat of his government to Hyderabad. The province is now

divided between the Nizam and the Mahrattas, about one- | it. The palace of Aurungzebe, which is now in ruins, covers fourth being under the sway of the former; and three-fourths an extensive space. Here is also a celebrated mausoleum under that of the latter. erected by order of that ruler to the memory of his daughter: it bears some resemblance to the tuge mahal built by the Emperor Shah Jehan, at Agra. The whole city is rapidly falling to decay, and when visited in 1827 by Colonel Fitzclarence appeared, at least as regarded its principal buildings, little better than a heap of ruins. In 1825 it was still, however, said to contain a population of 60,000 persons, and to cover a space about seven miles in circumference. A considerable traffic is carried on in the bazaar, where both European and native goods are exposed for sale: the principal trade is in silk manufactures.

The surface of the province is in general mountainous, especially where it is crossed by the western ghauts, the hills there rising to a considerable height. The tract of country which lies to the eastward of the ghauts, and which includes the largest portion of the province, is for the most part elevated table-land, seldom less than 1800 feet above the level of the sea. It abounds in those almost inaccessible fastnesses the hill forts-which so often baffled the attempts of the Moguls, and were of the greatest service to the natives in their struggles for independence.

In its general character, the soil of the province is fertile, producing abundance of rice; but, owing to the oppressive character of the native governments, the population is by no means proportionate to the extent or capability of the soil. Many European fruits attain to a high degree of perfection, particularly strawberries, peaches, and grapes; the last of which are very large.

A very hardy but ill-formed breed of horses is reared in great numbers for the Mahratta cavalry.

During eight or nine months of the year the wind usually blows from the south-west; in the months of November, December, and January, easterly winds commonly prevail, and at this time the variations of temperature are sudden and excessive, the thermometer changing from 50° to 86° in the same day. At other times the range of the thermometer is from 78° to 100° Fahrenheit. The average quantity of rain which falls during the year is stated to be 36 inches; but in this respect the climate is subject to much variation, and for each of three consecutive years it has been known that the quantity of rain has not exceeded 21 inches. All kinds of tropical fruits are good and abundant, and both grapes and oranges are of excellent quality.

Aurungabad contains the sources of several rivers; among others are the Neera, the Beema, and the Godavery. The first rises in the western ghauts to the south of Poona, and passing eastward divides the province from Bejapoor, and falls into the Beema at Nursingur, in the province of Aurungabad is distant from Poonah 186 miles from Malwa. The Beema rises in the mountains about 40 miles Bombay 284 miles; from Hyderabad 295; from Madras north of Poona, and passes at a distance of 15 miles from 647; from Delhi 750; and from Calcutta 1022 miles, travelthat place; thence it flows, with many windings, in a south-ling distances. It is also about seven miles south-east easterly direction, receiving several hill-streams in its from the fortress of Dowlatabad. (See Rennell's Memoir; course, and after flowing about 400 miles it joins the Malcolm's Memoir of Central India; Ferishta's History of Krishna, in the province of Hyderabad. The Godavery, one the Deccan; Fitzclarence's Route through India and of the most sacred streams of the Hindoos, and the largest Egypt to England.) river of the Dekkan, proceeds from numerous sources in the western ghaut mountains, and traverses the province from west to east. [See GODAVERY.] These rivers do not attain to any considerable size until they have left the limits of the province.

The principal towns of the Soubah are Aurungabad, Ahmednuggur, Dowlatabad, Poona, Jalna, and Bassein. Descriptions of these places will be found in this work, as well as of the remarkable excavated temples of Carli and Elora, both of which are within the province. The inhabitants are principally Hindoos; only about one-twentieth are Mohammedans. The Mahratta language is that principally used, and of this there are several local dialects. Hindustanee and Persian are spoken by the higher classes, the latter being used in the courts.

(See Ferishta's History of the Deccan; Malcolm's Memoirs of Central India; Rennell's Memoir of a Map of Hindustan.)

AURUNGABAD, a city of Hindustan, within the limits of the Nizam's dominions, and the capital of the province just described. It is situated in 19° 54′ N. lat., and 75° 33′ E. long.

Aurungabad was originally a village named Gurka, but becoming a favourite residence of Aurungzebe during the time when he was governor of Khandeish, in the Dekkan, it speedily rose in importance. For a long time after the Nizams had shaken off their dependence upon the court of Delhi, this city continued to be the place of their residence.

Aurungabad is situated in a hollow, on the banks of the river Kowlah, a mountain-stream, which separates the city from a considerable suburb called Begum Poora, the communication with which is preserved by means of two substantial bridges. On the north side is a considerable marsh employed for the cultivation of rice, and it is probably owing to the exhalations proceeding from this ground that the city is very unhealthy, and that the inhabitants are subject at all seasons to be attacked by intermittent fevers. The military cantonments, which stand about a mile south-west of the city upon a rocky plain, are said to be free from this malaria, and to be generally healthy.

Considerable industry has been shown in providing a sufficient supply of excellent water for the use and comfort of the inhabitants. This water is brought by means of stone conduits from the neighbouring hills, and is distributed through earthen pipes to numerous stone reservoirs in every part of the city. The principal street is nearly two miles long, and of a considerable width, with a spacious quadrangle at one extremity, and a handsome market-place near

No. 150.

AURUNGZEBE was the last powerful and energetic sovereign that ruled over the Mogol empire of Hindustan during the latter half of the seventeenth century. His proper name was Mohammed; but his grandfather gave him the surname Aurungzebe (properly Aurang-zîb), i. e. the ornament of the throne, and when he became emperor, he assumed the titles of Mohî-eddîn, i. e. ' the reviver of religion, and Alem-gîr, i. e. the conqueror of the world.'

Aurungzebe was the third son of Shah Jehan, the son and successor of the celebrated emperor Jehangir. He was born on the 22nd of October. 1618, and had just attained his tenth year when, upon the death of Jehangir, his father ascended the throne (1st February, 1628). Aurungzebe appears from an early age to have aspired to the throne of the Mogols; but he artfully concealed his ambitious designs under an assumed air of piety and devotedness to religious duties. From his twentieth year, however, military duties devolved upon him, and soon engaged his entire attention. After an expedition, which the tranquillity of the empire had permitted Shah Jehan to undertake against the Dekkan, Aurungzebe was appointed governor of the conquered province of Khandeish, and founded here a magnificent city, which he called after his own name Aurungabad (properly Aurang-âbâd, i. e. the city of Aurang). Soon afterwards the province of Cabul was infested by an incursion of the Uzbeks. Aurungzebe was sent against them, and after a long and desperate struggle succeeded in subduing the Uzbek sovereign. But neither Aurungzebe nor Dara-Shekuh, his eldest brother, was able to rescue the city of Candahar, which Shah Abbas of Persia, during the absence of the Mogol army, had obtained by capitulation. At the instigation of Emir Jumlah, a chief in the service of the king of Golconda, Aurungzebe renewed the war in the Dekkan: he had taken Hyderabad by surprise, and laid siege to the city of Golconda, when orders from the imperial court at Agra arrived, directing that terms of peace should be proposed to the besieged raja. Emir Jumlah was called to Agra, and the emperor Shah Jehan conferred upon him the dignity of vizier. Jointly with him, Aurungzebe led an expedition against the raja of Bejapore, who, after the defeat of his army, was obliged to submit to very severe terms. After these events (about the end of the year 1656), the health of Shah Jehan, who was then upwards of seventy years old, excited alarm. His eldest son, Dara-Shekul (born in A.D. 1615), endeavouring to secure the throne to himself, confined his father, and took the reins of government into his hands. He was at first opposed by his brother Sujah (born in A.D. 1616), the next in age to himself, but without effect. But Aurungzebe, under the pretence of

[THE PENNY CYCLOPÆDIA.]

securing the throne to his younger brother Murad Bakhsh | attention of Aurungzebe during the latter vears of his life. (born in A.D. 1624), then at Ahmedabad in Guzerat, invited The imperial troops easily conquered the Mahratta forces him to join him with his forces at Ougein, the capital of whenever they met them in the open field; but the MahMalwah. Murad Bakhsh followed this invitation, and the rattas skilfully eluded regular battles. They issued from united troops of the two brothers encountered and defeated their fastnesses in the mountains whenever they could, inthe forces of Dara-Shekuh near Qugein, and again near fested the adjacent provinces by predatory incursions, and Agra. Dara-Shekuh fled towards Lahore, and Aurung- retired to their retreats as soon as a Mogol army apzebe having first seized and imprisoned his brother Murad proached them. The jealous policy of Aurungzebe preBakhsh at Agra, was proclaimed emperor in the gardens of vented him from intrusting bold and enterprising officers Izz-abad, near Delhi, on the 20th of July (according to with the command of his troops, or with the government of others on the 2nd of August), 1658. His father, Shah provinces. Years were lost in unavailing attempts to subJehan, had in the mean time recovered from his illness; due the dominion of these mountaineers, who soon found but Aurungzebe continued to keep him in custody, and the whole country south of the river Nerbudda open to their removed him from Delhi to Agra, where he died at the age devastations. In the midst of these struggles Aurungzebe of seventy-four years, and it has been suspected by poison, died at Ahmednagar, in the province of Dowlatabad, on the on the 21st of January, 1666. 21st of January, 1707. With his death terminated the brilliant epoch of the Mogol power in India. He had five sons, Mohammed, Mohammed Mozim, Azem, Akbar, and Kâmbakhsh. Mohammed Mozim (surnamed Shah Alem and Kotb-eddîn Bahadur Shah) was proclaimed his successor. (See Orme's Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire, vol. i. Lond. 1782, 8vo. Dow's History of Hindostan, vol. iii: p. 60, &c. Mill's History of British India, 2d edit., vol. p. 330-373.)

Shortly after Aurungzebe had been proclaimed emperor, his brother Sujah repeated the attempt to possess himself of the government, but was defeated in several battles, and at last having no further means of resistance, he fled from his retreat at Dacca in Bengal, and sought refuge with the neighbouring raja of Aracan, by whom he was cruelly betrayed and imprisoned. Dara Shekuh had about the same time returned from Lahore, and having gained the governor of Guzerat, was marching towards Delhi, when he was met and defeated by Aurungzebe near Ajmere. He fled towards the Indus, but was betrayed into the hands of his brother, and put to death at Khizr-abad, near Delhi, on the 28th of August, 1659. His son Soliman-Shekuh had sought the protection of the raja of Serinagur in the northern mountains, but was by him delivered into the hands of Aurungzebe, who confined him in the fort of Gwalior (14th of January, 1661).

Aurungzebe had, in 1659, been proclaimed a second time, when he ordered that, for the future, the beginning of his reign should be dated from the 12th of May of that year (or the 1st of Ramazan, A. Heg. 1069). As soon as he had repressed all competition for the throne, he showed great prudence and talent in his administration, and his reign was peaceful and tranquil. Much credit is due to the foresight and prudent measures by which he succeeded in averting or mitigating the disastrous consequences of a famine that occurred in the third year of his reign.

Emir Jumlah had been appointed governor of Bengal; and his popularity excited the jealousy of Aurungzebe, who, in order to prevent him from forming ambitious designs, sent him on an expedition against the king of Asam. The arms of Emir Jumlah were victorious; but his troops were afflicted with a dysentery, to which disease Emir Jumlah himself fell a victim.

It deserves to be noticed that the throne of Aurungzebe had nearly been endangered in consequence of the mistake of a secretary, who, in writing to Shah Abbas of Persia, had addressed him by no higher title than belonged to the khan of the Uzbeks. Shah Abbas, supposing this to be a premeditated insult, declared a war, which might have proved fatal to Aurungzebe, and was actually advancing with an army towards India, when he suddenly died.

In the mean time, a new enemy to the throne of Aurungzebe had arisen in the person of Sevagee, the founder of the Mahratta power, who, when thwarted in his first exploits, submitted to the emperor, but soon revolted, in consequence of being treated with contumely; he struck coins in his own name, attacked and plundered Surat, and other parts of the Mogol dominion, and made the kings of Bejapore and of Golconda tributary to himself. In 1677 he entered the territory of Golconda with 40,000 horse, and placed Mahratta governors in the towns and fortresses; and when he died (A.D. 1682) his dominions comprehended an extent of about 400 miles in length, by 120 in breadth. The hostilities between the Mahratta and Mogol dominions were continued under his son Sambagee, who roused the indignation and resentment of Aurungzebe by affording a refuge to Prince Akbar, one of the emperor's younger sons, who had revolted against his father. In 1687 Aurungzebe led an army into the Dekkan, compelled the cities of Hyderabad, Bejapore, and Golconda to surrender, and extended his dominion nearly to the limits of the Carnatic. Sambagee was taken prisoner, and put to a cruel death. His brother Rama threw himself into the fort of Gingee, where he offered a most desperate resistance, and retarded the reduction of the Carnatic from the year 1692 till 1700. The settlement of the Dekkan, and the subjugation of the Mahrattas, continued to occupy the whole

ii.

AUSCULTATION, from ausculto to listen, the method of distinguishing the states of health and disease by the study of the sounds produced by the organs in the movements which they make in the performance of their functions. When air rushes by the wind-pipe into the lung in the action of inspiration; when it is expelled through the same tube in the action of expiration; when it is acted upon in the larynx by the organs of the voice; when the heart beats, that is, when the different chambers of which it is composed forcibly contract; when the blood flows through the great arterial trunks; when air is contained in the intestines and is acted on by these organs in their natural movements,—in all these cases sounds are produced which can be heard, often by the unassisted ear; and still more distinctly by the aid of an acoustic instrument. When attention is paid to these sounds, it is found that they differ greatly from each other. The sound of the air in the wind-pipe during inspiration is different from that in the same tube in expiration: the sound of the air in the larynx during the act of speaking is different from both; while the sound produced by the action of the heart, and even by the action of its different chambers, may be discriminated the one from the other. By the study of these sounds, it is obvious that it may be possible to become acquainted with those which are natural to the different organs in the state of health: but when these organs become disordered, their movements are modified in a great variety of modes, each modification of movement being attended with a corresponding modification of sound; consequently, these modified sounds are capable of affording indications of various states of disease, the difference between the healthy and the morbid sound bring the sign and the measure of the deviation of the organ from the state of health. The physician, carefully studying the sounds produced by the organs during life, makes himself familiar with those which are natural to them: in a particular case he hears sounds which he knows to be altogether different from those that are natural: the patient dies: the physician examines the organs after death; he finds that a certain organ is diseased in a certain mode this morbid condition of the organ, which he has been taught by inspection after death, he associates in his mind with the peculiar sound which he observed that the organ emitted during life. Another case, attended with the same sound, is proved by inspection after death to be con nected with the same disease of the same organ; and every time that he hears this peculiar sound, he finds the same organ diseased in the same mode. A peculiar sound may thus become the sure and certain indication of a particular disease; in this manner, by persevering attention during life and careful examination after death, it may be possible to discriminate the morbid states of all the organs that give, when in action, a distinguishable sound. Extended and repeated observation has shown that the detection and discrimination of disease by this mode may be effected with a minuteness and precision that could not possibly have been credited previous to the practical demonstration of the fact; and modern science has elicited, and almost matured, a new mode, an inventum novum, as one of the first suggestors of it justly termed it, of discovering

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