2. I have just cause, being her uncle, and her guardian. SHAKESPEARE. (See § 474.)

3. There is no man that has left house, or brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, . . . THE BIBLE.

4. For I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, - THE BIBLE.

468. Comma omitted. When two or more adjectives in a series are not of the same kind, they are not separated by the comma :

1. A handsome old man.

2. A live electric wire.

3. A great rough Newfoundland dog. - B.

4. A kind-hearted old Irish policeman.

469. Illiterate comma. One of the worst errors is the use of the comma between independent clauses which are not joined by a connective:

1. He was not admitted, for he had no ticket. (Not 'He was not admitted, he had no ticket '.)

2. He was not admitted; for he had no ticket. (§ 476.)

3. He was not admitted; he had no ticket.

470. Parenthetic or independent matter. The comma is used to set off words, phrases, or clauses used parenthetically or independently (see §§ 471 and 472 also):

1. Tell me, then (therefore), what you wish.

2. Indeed (however, moreover, besides, well), it was anything but a gloomy prospect. (For however as a subordinating conjunction, see § 303, 8.)

3. To put the matter frankly, what does she intend to do?

4. Having missed the train, they returned on foot.

5. This road is, I fear, too steep.

6. His difficulties, and great difficulties they were, found a speedy solution. (Parentheses may be used for the commas; § 490. Do not use dashes for commas; §§ 488, 489.)

NOTE. In the following sentence from James Russell Lowell all the commas are necessary; but, as the authors of The King's English remark, "the crowd of commas ought to have told the writer how bad his sentence was; it is like an obstacle race": Shakespeare, it is true, had, as I have already said, as respects England, the privilege which only first-comers enjoy."

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471. Nominative of address. The comma is used to set off words in the nominative of address (this is the proper punctuation after the salutation in letters; §§ 527, 534, 542, 544, 545):

1. Mother, will you go with me?

2. It is not possible, my boy, for me to go.

NOTE. When the words of address express emotion, they may be followed by the exclamation mark (§ 464): My dear boy! you have done too much.

472. Nonessential words, etc. The comma is used to set off nonessential words, phrases, and clauses (§§ 50, 92, 270):

1. Mr. John Adams, the vice president, was absent. (§ 50.) 2. Mr. and Mrs. Henry Jackson, of Springfield, were not there. (But, 'The Jacksons of Springfield were not there'.)

3. Refreshed by sleep, she continued her journey.

4. The poor boy, wearied and sad, paused by the wayside. 5. Such a book is called a manual, or handbook.

6. James Scott, D.D., LL.D., editor in chief.

7. The weather, which had long been stormy, now began to moderate. (§ 92.)

473. Direct quotation. The comma is used to set off a direct quotation (§ 176) or the like:

1. He then said, "This can be done at once." 2. She exclaimed, " How fortunate!" (But,

"How fortunate!"

When a quotation is formal, or consists of several paragraphs, the colon is used instead of the comma (§ 486):

1. The stranger replied: "Do not think ", etc.

2. He arose and addressed them: "Gentlemen, this is ", etc.

474. Added thought. The comma is used to set off a thought added at the end of the sentence; the position and the punctuation give the added thought unusual emphasis: 1. 'Twas certain he could write, and cipher too. - GOLDSMITH. 2. The master beat the scholar, with a strap. ("A strap, we are to understand from the comma, is a barbarous instrument." King's English.)

- The

3. "Why is it best, sir?" returned Richard, hastily. - DICKENS. (In this usage the principal verb, returned, usually precedes the subject, Richard; but if the subject is a pronoun, the pronoun is unemphatic and should precede the verb, where it is less emphatic than at the end of the clause: "Why not?" he asked, with a grin.) 4. He stood by the window, looking out into the night.

475. Unusual order. The comma is used to set off words, phrases, or clauses that are out of their normal position; but short prepositional phrases at the beginning of a sentence need not be set off by a comma unless a following clause or phrase makes the punctuation necessary:

1. Suddenly, before he could prevent it, his hands were seized from behind.

2. In the rear of the house an old shed was visible.

In the rear of the house, where an old shed had stood, was a flower garden.

3. To avoid getting into trouble, I went home. (When an infinitive phrase expresses purpose, § 615, it is regularly followed by a comma, for clearness; compare 'To avoid getting into trouble was difficult', in which the infinitive phrase is the subject of was.) 4. But if we will be useful to the world, we must take it as we find it. ADDISON. (In this type of sentence the comma is not needed after and, but, or for followed by although, if, when, etc.)

5. He then called together the most faithful of his counsellors, and acquainting them with the secretary's crime, asked their advice. ADDISON. (The omission of a comma after and is ungrammatical, but here rhetoric is more important than grammar.)

6. What the answer is, I leave you to discover. (But, I leave you to discover what the answer is.)

476. Coördinating conjunctions. The coördinating conjunctions but and for are usually preceded by the comma, semicolon, or period; in the older language (as in the Bible), by the colon also; when mere words or phrases are contrasted, the comma may be omitted before but:

1. He called, but nobody answered.

2. He did not return; for he had lost his way.

3. But they had not forgotten him.

4. Blessed are the merciful: for they shall obtain mercy. — THE BIBLE.

5. Goldsmith published the Vicar of Wakefield, not in 1761, but in 1766. — MACAULAY. (Observe the comma before not.)

Thus he accomplished, not what he had planned, but what he had despaired of.

6. He is not only bright, but studious. (§ 298.) 7. He is a wise but melancholy old man.

477. Subordinating conjunctions. The subordinating conjunctions, if their clauses are nonessential (§ 270), are preceded by the comma or the semicolon (for but, see § 312):

1. We did not stop, since it was already late. (But, We have not seen him since you went away.)

2. Arise and eat; because the journey is too great for thee.

478. Ellipsis. The comma is often used to denote an ellipsis (§ 347):

1. To err is human; to forgive, divine. (The comma after forgive indicates the omission of the verb is.)

2. He was always silent about what he himself had done; but of what his friends had done, never.

479. Ambiguity. The comma may be used to avoid ambiguity; but, as a rule, sentences that would be ambiguous without the comma should be rewritten :

1. Faulty: In the valley below, the villages looked small. (Say * Down in the valley the villages looked small '.)

2. Faulty: To John, Henry was always friendly. (Say 'Henry was always friendly to John', 'John always found Henry friendly', or the like, according to the sense.)

3. It rained so hard that we waited. (Not 'It rained so that we waited'; nor 'It rained so, that we waited'.)

480. Also, too; namely, that is. The words also and too at the end of a sentence or clause should not be set off by a comma; nor should they be set off in the middle of a sentence, unless they are parenthetic and refer to the whole sentence; put a comma (not a colon or a dash) before and after namely and that is (unless that is is followed by a principal clause, when it is usually preceded by a semicolon):

1. The works that I do shall he do also. - THE BIBLE. (Avoid using also at the beginning of a sentence or clause; use and, furthermore, moreover, besides, or the like; see § 273, 6.)

2. That ye also love one another. - THE BIBLE.

3. Our ship was an excellent sailor too. - DEFOE.

4. Like twilight's, too, her dusky hair. - WORDSWORTH.

5. If we look into the second rule which Socrates has prescribed, namely, that we should apply ourselves to the knowledge of such things as are best for us . . . — ADDISON.

6. It is briefly comprehended in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. - THE BIBLE.

7. Be what you are, that is, a woman. (Be what you are; that is, be a woman.)

None is good save one, that is, God. - THE BIBLE.

But sell not all thou hast, except thou come and follow me; that is, except thou have a vocation wherein thou mayest do as much good with small means as with great. — LORD BACON.