fuller of virtuous precept than a copy-book. Some people likened him to a direction-post, which is always telling the way to a place, and never goes there: but these were his enemies; the shadows cast by his brightness; that was all. His very throat was moral. You saw a good deal of it. You looked over a very low fence of white cravat (whereof no man had ever beheld the tie, for he fastened it behind), and there it lay, a valley between two jutting heights of collar, serene and whiskerless before you. It seemed to say, on the part of Mr. Pecksniff, "There is no deception, ladies and gentlemen, all is peace, a holy calm pervades me." So did his hair, just grizzled with an iron-grey, which was all brushed off his forehead, and stood bolt upright, or slightly drooped in kindred action with his heavy eyelids. So did his person, which was sleek though free from corpulency. So did his manner, which was soft and oily. In a word, even his plain black suit, and state of widower, and dangling double eyeglass, all tended to the same purpose, and cried aloud, "Behold the moral Pecksniff!"-DICKENS. (Exercise XXXIV, § 579.)

359. Unity throughout; paraphrase; outline. The entire composition, no less than the sentence and the paragraph, should have unity. The easiest as well as the surest way to attain this is by means of paraphrase and outline. The student should begin, not by trying to produce original work, but by studying the work of good authors, and by paraphrasing that work into simple and familiar English.

Paraphrase. Paraphrasing teaches clear and close thinking, which not only is the first and most direct step toward original composition, but is fundamental to all education. The student who approaches composition through paraphrasing is not bewildered and made unhappy by having to hunt about for something to say, but finds himself engaged in the problem of analyzing and reproducing what somebody else has said. He studies the meaning of the words and phrases, and then expresses the thought in his own language.

After a considerable amount of practice of this kind, his next step is to take topic sentences (§§ 357, 579) and develop them by the same method by which he has learned to develop the thought in making paraphrases. Having formed the habit of studying words, he now applies his skill to his own original work, and finds himself able to produce something creditable. Paraphrasing should begin with prose, and should continue with prose until the student becomes familiar with the process, and acquires facility. The transition to poetry may then be made without loss of power, and with increasing interest. The passages chosen for paraphrasing should be inviting and stimulating, and should be so carefully graded that the student's mind runs ahead, instead of being painfully driven through an exercise which is too difficult. The teacher should not be satisfied with paraphrases which are inaccurate or crude, but should teach the student to be discriminating in the choice of words (§ 382) and in the style, that he may catch not only the thought but the spirit of the original work. Sometimes the language of the original should be condensed, and sometimes expanded. This kind of study may give the student a glimpse of the beauty of poetry, and induce him to read the poets.

In paraphrasing poetry, observe the following points: First, write the paraphrase in the form of prose, disregarding the division of the poetry into lines with capital letters.

Secondly, avoid poetic expressions, however simple: methinks, doth, hath, findeth, o'er, ne'er, sooth, swain.

Thirdly, expand the language (use a larger number of words) when necessary; the poet may have been obliged to compress his thought into the fewest words possible.

Fourthly, in a selection of some length it may be advisable to pick out a thought for a topic sentence (§ 357), regardless of where the thought occurs in the original.

1 Browning wrote this poem after seeing Woolner's sculptured group of Sir Thomas Fairburn's deaf and dumb children.

Outline; composition. When the student has acquired skill in paraphrasing and in developing topic sentences, his next step toward original work is to plan and develop his intended composition by means of an outline. The outline indicates the divisions and subdivisions of the subject, and thus teaches how to arrange the subject matter in logical order, and how to group those points which are related, without repetition. An outline bears the same relation to an entire composition that the topic sentence bears to the paragraph (or that a table of contents bears to a book; see Contents, and the outlines in §§ 355, 366). Study § 587.

A simple outline, sufficient for ordinary purposes, may be made by answering the questions Who? (= any subject) When? Where? What? How? Why? Group your material under these headings, and develop it in whatever order seems desirable.

NOTE. The beginning is perhaps the most difficult part to write. Do not waste time at the outset by trying to decide what form it shall take, but let it develop with the rest of the composition. See § 354, note.

OUTLINE

Who? (Benjamin Franklin)

When? (colonial times)

Where? (at home and abroad)

What? (from candle-maker's assistant to scientist, statesman,
and diplomat)

How? (by study, economy, perseverance, integrity)
Why? (because of his love for his fellow men; he never
sought office)

OUTLINE

Who? (a crop of oranges)

When? (this year)

Where? (in Florida or California)

What? (unusual in amount and quality)

Why? (good conditions, better care)

Who? (I)

OUTLINE

What? (fishing)

When? (last summer)

How? (in a sailboat)

Where? (in Buck's Harbor) Why? (food for the camp)

COMPOSITION

Observe the paragraphing and unity in the following letter (postscripts, as a rule, should be avoided; they violate the principle of unity, § 353):

Dear Jack,

Buck's Harbor, Maine,
August 16, 1922.

A week of my outing with my cousins is already gone. Nothing in particular has happened except my adventure of yesterday, out in the harbor. I was fishing alone in a small sailboat, and had caught some haddock and hake, when I looked out to sea. Noticing a thin belt of fog along Pickering's Island, I pulled up anchor and set sail.

The fog grew thicker, and the wind almost died away. I was soon shut in by the mist, and couldn't keep the right direction, but I took my fog horn and blew every minute.

For a long time I sailed about in the bay, and wondered where I could be. It was nearly dark, and I was cold and hungry. At last I blew two or three times, louder than ever. Then I listened. A faint shout answered. I sailed in the direction of the sound, listening and watching. A light finally shone through the fog. It was the camp fire which the boys were building. They were heaping up the faggots to guide me to the shore.

I was soon beside the blazing fire, and a big haddock was spluttering over the coals.

The boys ask when you are coming. We shall have more fun when you are here. You will come soon, won't you?

With love from us all I am, as ever,

Your old pal,

Dick.

PS. Don't trouble to bring fishing tackle; we have everything you need. Just pack up some old clothes, and come as soon as you can.