302. Subordinating conjunctions. A subordinating conjunction connects a subordinate clause with a principal clause (§§ 7, 8). Some subordinating conjunctions, like some prepositions, were originally adverbs (see § 383):

1. I never saw him before. (Adverb.)

2. I saw him before he returned. (Subordinating conjunction, connecting the clause he returned with the verb saw.)

303. Classification. Subordinating conjunctions are classified according to the kind of subordinate clause which they introduce (compare § 269); phrases used as conjunctions are called compound conjunctions:

1. Clause of time: after, as (= while), as soon as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, whensoever, while. He trembled as he spoke.

2. Clause of place: where, wherever. I will go where you go. 3. Clause of cause: as (= since), because, inasmuch as, in that (= since), since, that (= because), whereas. I did not wait because I was alone. He did right in that he stayed away. I am sorry that you waited.

4. Clause of purpose (with the present or the past subjunctive): lest (= that. not, for fear that, with the subjunctive), so that, that. She went at once, lest she should be late. He has come that he may help us.

5. Clause of result: so that, that. It rained in such torrents that we stayed at home. See so, § 417.

6. Clause of condition: if, in case that, in case, unless (= if . . . not), whether (= if). In case you succeed, build a fire. We shall not go unless you do. He will go whether we do or not.

7. Clause of concession or contrast: although, even if, though, whereas (=while on the contrary, although). Although it is cheap, I do not want it. He was there, whereas we were not. 8. Clause of comparison (of manner or degree):

Manner: as, as if (§ 346), however. We do as he does. He acted as if he were frightened. However it happened, I was to blame (see § 470, 2).

Degree: according as, in proportion as, in so far as, as well as, however, much as, than. He is as tall as I am (see § 347). He is taller than I am. They thought it flimsy as well as (they thought it) expensive. She accepted no favors, however small they were. Much as he dislikes to do so, he will wait.

9. Noun clause: if (= whether), that, whether. I asked him if (or whether) he lived near. It is uncertain whether his brother returned. (The noun clause includes indirect questions; see S$ 77, 78.)

304. Relative adverbs. A clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction is often used to modify a noun; such a clause is therefore not an adverb clause, but an adjective clause (§ 114), and the subordinating conjunction so used is called a relative adverb (being used similarly to a relative pronoun, §81). Such subordinating conjunctions as after, before, since (expressing time), when, where, while, and why may be relative adverbs:

1. We saw him the day before he went away. (Modifies day.) 2. There is the house where we lived. (Modifies house.)

3. That is the reason why he returned. (Modifies reason.)

For subordinating conjunctions of time, place, and the like in conditional sentences, see § 342.

...

305. As... as, so . . as. Use as as in affirmative declarative sentences; use so as in negative and other sentences implying a fixed limit or a comparison in which there is felt to be a marked contrast:

1. She is as tall as he (is; § 347).
2. She is not so tall as he (is; § 347).

3. Who could be so helpful as she?

4. So far as I know, he deserves assistance.

5. Do as much as you can.

6. Do only so much as you can conveniently. (= Don't do more than you can conveniently.)

306. As overworked. The conjunction as is overworked, often being made to take the place of because, since, when, or while:

1. Since he could not come, he wrote a letter. (Not 'As'.)

2. While she was reading, she fell asleep. (Not 'As '.)

307. As follows. In the expression as follows the as is a subordinating conjunction denoting manner; the impersonal subject (it) is omitted:

He wrote a letter of apology, as (it) follows.

308. Because, since, etc. In causal clauses because gives the real reason; since, as, inasmuch as, or for (not a subordinating conjunction; § 298), gives the logical reason:

1. The thermometer is rising because the air is warmer.

2. Since the thermometer is rising, (I infer that) the air is

warmer.

309. Than. In the older language than was frequently followed by the objective case instead of the nominative; although now grammatically incorrect, than whom is still used occasionally, but it is clumsy, and sounds pedantic. In present usage the case after than depends on the construction:

1. He is older than she (is).

2. He likes her better than (he likes) me.

310. That, to. In clauses of purpose we are sinking into a mannerism in using the heavy phrase 'in order that' for the old and simple that, a habit formed at school and college in the translation of foreign languages. The same thing is true of 'in order' placed before the infinitive with to. Omit 'in order', and observe how much smoother the language is; or read the Bible and Shakespeare aloud and hear how the language would sound within order' inserted :

1. That we may accomplish these things, we need time. To obtain the books, we need time.

For the purpose of accomplishing these things (or, If we are to accomplish these things), we need time.

2. Fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. GOLDSMITH. 3. But all this was done, [in order] that the scriptures of the prophets might be fulfilled. THE BIBLE.

4. And when he had sent the multitudes away, he went up into a mountain apart [in order] to pray. - THE BIBLE.

5. [In order] To save your life in this extremity,

This favor will I do you for his sake. SHAKESPEARE.

6. To justify this assertion, I shall put my reader in mind of Horace, the greatest wit and critic in the Augustan age. ADDISON.

311. Confusion of relatives, etc. In the analysis of subordinate clauses relative pronouns, relative adverbs, or subordinating conjunctions are often confused with interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, or interrogative subordinating conjunctions introducing indirect questions (§§ 77, 263, 330): 1. I met the man whom they elected. (Relative pronoun.) I asked whom they elected. (Interrogative pronoun.) 2. He had gone when you came. (Subordinating conjunction.) He wondered when you came. (Interrogative adverb.)

3. He will go if I do. (Subordinating conjunction.)

It is doubtful if I can go. (Interrogative subordinating conjunction; § 303, 9.)

4. I see the house where you live. (Relative adverb.) Tell me where you live. (Interrogative adverb.)

5. He gave what I wanted. (Relative pronoun; § 83.) He learned what I wanted. (Interrogative pronoun.)

312. But, etc., subordinating. The prepositions but (8314), considering, notwithstanding (§ 283), and seeing may take a that-clause as object; but that may be omitted, and these words then have the force of subordinating conjunctions (do not say 'but what' for but that or but; see but that, but

what, § 417); a few other words, such as now and provided, with or without that, are used as subordinating conjunctions; the subordinating conjunction but does not have a comma or other mark of punctuation before it (§§ 476, 477):

1. Nothing would please him but that I must go too.
2. It never rains but it pours (= that it does not pour).
3. Now that (= Seeing that) you have it, keep it.

313. But as relative pronoun. After a negative the subject or the object in a subordinate clause introduced by but is frequently omitted, and but has the force of a negative relative pronoun meaning who . . . not or that . . . not (do not say ' but what' for but; see but that, but what, § 417):

...

1. There was not a boy but (= who not) was grateful.
2. Nobody knew her but loved her.
3. There is no task but (= that . . .

not) he will undertake.

314. But as preposition. In elliptical sentences (§ 347) the coördinating conjunction but often has the force of a preposition. In colloquial speech (§ 380) it is commonly followed by the objective form of the pronouns (me, us, him, etc.) instead of the nominative (I, we, he, etc.); but careful speakers or writers either use the nominative form or recast the sentence: 1. Nobody is at home but Polly [is at home].

2. Nobody is at home but she. (Colloquially, her. Recast: 'She is the only one at home'. If but precedes the verb, as in 'Nobody but she is at home', 'but her' would be awkward, and should be avoided.)

3. The boy stood on the burning deck,

Whence all but he had fled. MRS. HEMANS.

(Sometimes erroneously printed 'him '.)

4. I saw nobody but [I saw] him. (Him is correct here, being the object of the verb saw, understood.)

5. Nobody but she sympathized with her dear daughter's sufferings.-DICKENS.