Chemical Engineers

(O*NET 22114)

Nature of the Work

Chemical engineers apply the principles of chemistry and engineering to solve problems involving the production or use of chemicals. They design equipment and develop processes for large scale chemical manufacturing, plan and test methods of manufacturing the products and treating the by-products, and supervise production. Chemical engineers also work in a variety of maufacturing industries other than chemical manufacturing such as electronics, photographic equipment, and pulp and paper mills.

Because the knowledge and duties of chemical engineers cut across many fields, they apply principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, and mechanical and electrical engineering. They frequently specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area such as pollution control or the production of specific products such as automotive plastics or chlorine bleach. Chemical engineers are increasingly using computer technology to optimize all phases of research and production; therefore they need to understand how to apply computer skills to process analysis, automated control systems, and statistical quality control.

Although many chemical engineers are employed by manufacturers, much of the job growth is expected to occur in services industries.

electronics, petroleum refining, paper, chemical, and related industries. Most others worked for engineering services, research and testing services, or consulting firms that design chemical plants. Some also worked on a contract basis for government agencies or as independent consult

ants.

Job Outlook

Chemical engineering graduates may face keen competition for jobs as the number of openings is projected to be substantially lower than the number of graduates. Employment of chemical engineers is projected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations though 2008. Although overall employment in the chemical manufacturing industry is expected to decline, chemical companies will continue to research and develop new chemicals and more efficient processes to increase output of existing chemicals. Among manufacturing industries, specialty chemicals, plastics materials, pharmaceuticals, and electronics may provide the best opportunities. Much of the projected growth in employment of chemical engineers, however, will be in nonmanufacturing industries, especially services industries.

Earnings

Median annual earnings of chemical engineers were $64,760 in 1998. The middle 50 percent earned between $49,360 and $81,520. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $41,380 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $92,240.

According to a 1999 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor's degree candidates in chemical engineering received starting offers averaging about $46,900 a year; master's degree candidates in chemical engineering, $52,100; and Ph.D. candidates in chemical engineering, $67,300.

(See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and sources of additional information.)

Civil Engineers

(O*NET 22121)

Nature of the Work

Civil engineers design and supervise the construction of roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and water supply and sewage systems. Major specialties within civil engineering are structural, water resources, environmental, construction, transportation, and geotechnical engineering.

Many civil engineers hold supervisory or administrative positions, from supervisor of a construction site to city engineer. Others may work in design, construction, research, and teaching.

Employment

Civil engineers held about 195,000 jobs in 1998. Almost half were employed by firms providing engineering consulting services, primarily developing designs for new construction projects. Another one third of the jobs were in Federal, State, and local government agencies. The construction industry, public utilities, transportation, and manufacturing industries accounted for most of the remaining employment. About 12,000 civil engineers were self-employed, many as consultants.

Civil engineers usually work near major industrial and commercial centers, often at construction sites. Some projects are situated in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, civil engineers move from place to place to work on different projects.

Job Outlook

Employment of civil engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through 2008. Spurred by general

Civil engineers take safety and environmental concerns into account when designing construction projects.

population growth and an expanding economy, more civil engineers will be needed to design and construct higher capacity transportation, water supply, and pollution control systems; large buildings and building complexes; and to repair or replace existing roads, bridges, and other public structures. In addition to job growth, openings will result from the need to replace civil engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Because construction and related industries-including those providing design services-employ many civil engineers, employment opportunities will vary by geographic area and may decrease during economic slowdowns, when construction is often curtailed.

and electronic equipment. Some of this equipment includes power generating, controlling, and transmission devices used by electric utilities; electric motors, machinery controls, lighting, and wiring in buildings, automobiles, and aircraft; and in radar and navigation systems, computer and office equipment, and broadcast and communications systems.

Electrical and electronics engineers specialize in different areas such as power generation, transmission, and distribution; communications; computer electronics; and electrical equipment manufacturing or a subdivision of these areas-industrial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write performance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. (See the statement on computer systems analysts, engineers, and scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Employment

Electrical and electronics engineers held about 357,000 jobs in 1998, making it the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in engineering and business consulting firms, government agencies, and manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment, industrial machinery, and professional and scientific instruments. Communications and utilities firms, manufacturers of aircraft and guided missiles, and computer and data processing services firms accounted for most of the remaining jobs.

California, Texas, New York, and New Jersey-states with many large electronics firms-employ over one-third of all electrical and electronics engineers.

Job Outlook

Electrical and electronics engineering graduates should have favorable job opportunities. The number of job openings resulting from employment growth and the need to replace electrical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force is expected to be in rough balance with the supply of graduates. Employment of electrical and electronics engineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 2008.

Projected job growth stems largely from increased demand for electrical and electronic goods, including computers and communications equipment. The need for electronics manufacturers to invest heavily in research and development to remain competitive and have a scientific edge will provide openings for graduates who have learned the latest technologies. Opportunities for electronics engineers in defense-related firms should improve as aircraft and weapons systems are upgraded with improved navigation, control, guid

Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways for an organization to use the basic factors of production-people, machines, materials, information, and energy-to make a product or provide a service. They are the bridge between management goals and operational performance. They are more concerned with increasing productivity through the management of people, methods of business organization, and technology than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes.

To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product and its requirements, use mathematical methods such as operations research to meet those requirements, and design manufacturing and information systems. They develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and control product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers determine which plant location has the best combination of raw materials availability, transportation, and costs. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related.

Employment

Industrial engineers held about 126,000 jobs in 1998. Over 70 percent of these jobs were in manufacturing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization, industrial engineers are more widely distributed among manufacturing industries than other engineers.

Employment of industrial engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through 2008, reflecting industrial growth, more complex business operations, and greater use of automation in factories and offices. Because the main function of an industrial engineer is to make a higher quality product as efficiently as possible, their services should be in demand in the manufacturing sector as firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity through scientific management. In addition to job growth, openings will result from the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

metals, ceramics, plastics, semiconductors, and combinations of materials called composites to create new materials that meet certain mechanical, electrical, and chemical requirements. They also test and evaluate existing materials for new applications. Materials engineers specializing in metals can be considered metallurgical engineers, while those specializing in ceramics can be considered ceramic engineers.

Most metallurgical engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy-extractive or chemical, physical, and mechanical or process. Extractive metallurgists are concerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical metallurgists study the nature, structure, and physical properties of metals and their alloys, and methods of processing them into final products. Mechanical metallurgists develop and improve metalworking processes such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing.

Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic materials and methods for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials that generally require high temperatures in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, automobile and aircraft engine components, fiber-optic communication lines, tile, and electric insulators.

Employment

Materials engineers held about 20,000 jobs in 1998. Because materials are building blocks for other goods, materials engineers are widely distributed among manufacturing industries. In fact, over half of materials engineers worked in metal-producing and processing; electronic and other electrical equipment; transportation equipment; industrial machinery and equipment; and stone, clay, and glass products manufacturing. They also worked in services industries such as engineering and management, business, and health services. Most remaining materials engineers worked for Federal and State governments.

Job Outlook

Employment of materials engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through 2008. Many of the manufacturing industries in which materials engineers are concentrated-such as primary metals; industrial machinery and equipment; and stone, clay, and glass products-are expected to experience declines in employment. As firms outsource their materials engineering needs, however, employment growth is expected in many services industries including research and testing, personnel

supply, health, and engineering and architectural services. In addition to growth, job openings will result from the need to replace materials engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

Earnings

Median annual earnings of materials engineers were $57,970 in 1998. The middle 50 percent earned between $43,890 and $77,730. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $34,890 and the highest 10 percent earned more than $89,600. In the Federal Government, materials engineers in supervisory, nonsupervisory, and management positions averaged $68,000 a year in early 1999.

According to a 1999 salary survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers, bachelor's degree candidates in materials engineering received starting offers averaging about $43,400 a year.

(See introduction to the section on engineers for information on working conditions, training requirements, and sources of additional information.)

Mechanical Engineers (O*NET 22135)

Nature of the Work

Mechanical engineers research, develop, design, manufacture and test tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical devices. They work on power-producing machines such as electricity-producing generators, internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also develop power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, robots used in manufacturing, machine tools, materials handling systems, and industrial production equipment. Mechanical engineers also design tools needed by other engineers for their work.

Mechanical engineers work in many industries and their work varies by industry and function. Some specialties include applied mechanics; computer-aided design and manufacturing; energy systems; pressure vessels and piping; and heating, refrigeration, and air-conditioning systems. Mechanical engineering is the broadest engineering discipline, extending across many interdependent specialties. Mechanical engineers may work in production operations, maintenance, or technical sales; many are administrators or managers.

Mechanical engineers increasingly use computers to perform modeling and simulation.

Employment

Mechanical engineers held about 220,000 jobs in 1998. Almost 3 out of 5 jobs were in manufacturing-mostly in machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, instruments, and fabricated metal products industries. Engineering and management services, business services, and the Federal Government provided most of the remaining jobs.

Job Outlook

Employment of mechanical engineers is projected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations though 2008. Although overall manufacturing employment is expected to decline, employment of mechanical engineers in manufacturing should increase as the demand for improved machinery and machine tools grows and industrial machinery and processes become increasingly complex. Employment of mechanical engineers in business and engineering services firms is expected to grow faster than average as other industries in the economy increasingly contract out to these firms to solve engineering problems. In addition to job openings from growth, many openings should result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

(O*NET 22108)

Nature of the Work

Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare coal, metals, and minerals for use by manufacturing industries and utilities. They design open pit and underground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe, economical, and environmentally sound operation of mines. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials with which they are mixed. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral or metal, such as coal or gold. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers work to solve problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution.