matter is endowed, gravitation, which is the simplest, is the only one which is always in action: the molecular and chemical forces, which are much more complex, act only under favourable conditions, but gravitation never ceases to act. Finally, life, which is the most complex of all modes of activity, is also the most special and the least generally manifested:-that is to say, only a very small proportion of matter is endowed with life-and among living beings, mind, which depends on the most complex nervous organization, is manifested only in certain classes, and is developed in any high degree in Man alone. Life also is of later origin than matter, and mind than unconscious life.

It appears to be necessary to the harmonious activity of the forces of the universe, that the stars and planets should be separated by vast vacant spaces. It is equally necessary as a condition of life, that living beings should be surrounded by vast masses of unorganized mattter. And mind is the highest development of a vast complication of vital powers, the greater part of which never become conscious, though in the closest organic connection with the conscious mind.1

least

"Thus in both space and time the most complex pro- Conseperties are the least widely distributed and the least quently the highest constantly in action. Now, as the highest results are the products results of the most complex properties and forces, it are the follows from the necessity of the case that the highest abundant. natural products are comparatively small in quantity: and this we have seen to be the fact: the highest products come at the end of long ages of preparation, and are then less abundant than the lower products. Life is a late and comparatively scanty work of creation, and mind is a later and scantier product still." 2

This is

"It is one of the many remarkable harmonies between the mind of man and the universe of which it is the recognized as right noblest product, that this distribution of the products of by the nature, both in space and in time, is that which appears artistic

On this subject see the second volume of "Habit and Intelligence." "Habit and Intelligence," vol. ii. p. 216.

Q

sense,

Series of

in nature

beautiful to the artistic sense. We recognize it as a maxim in art that the highest beauty should be introduced in relatively small quantity: thus in architecture, which is perhaps the best instance, such parts as cornices and capitals, which are at once small and conspicuous, can scarcely be too richly ornamented: but the effect would be very bad if the ornament which suits a cornice were spread over a wall, or if that which suits a capital were continued down the shaft of the column. In all art whatever the effect of an equal distribution of beauty over every part is not good. In all art whatever any part of a composition which rises above the general level of the whole in dignity or beauty will add dignity or beauty to the whole, provided that it is properly placed: while if any part sinks below the general level, it lowers the character of the whole. These principles are applicable alike to those arts which address themselves to the eye and those which address themselves to the ear. But in the latter—that is to say, in poetry and music, in which the parts of a composition are not simultaneous but successive-this further maxim is to be observed, that the highest beauty not only ought to be small in quantity, but ought to come last: and every previous part of the composition ought to lead up to it. In thus arranging his work, the artist without knowing it follows the example of nature."

To return from this digression :-We thus see in nature functions a series of laws and properties, progressively increasing increasing in complexity, while at the same time they decrease in plexity as generality. The members of the series may be thus enumerated:

in com

they de

crease in

generality.

1. Space and Time.

2. Matter with its forces. The properties of matter are

further distinguished as

(a) Common to all matter and always in operation;

as gravitation and the general laws of force. (b) Special to particular kinds of matter; as chemical properties.

1 "Habit and Intelligence," vol. ii. p. 217.

3. Life: which is further distinguished as(a) Organic or vegetative life.

(b) Animal, nervous, or sentient life.

(c) Mental or conscious life.1

with com

nature.

It is also to be observed, that as nature increases in Variety complexity from one member of the series to the next, it increases also increases in variety. This is for the very simple plexity. reason, that complexity gives scope and occasion for variety. Thus, space and time are absolutely uniform, but matter is various in the chemical properties of its different kinds, and the variety of the forms of life is almost infinite: so that nature may be compared to a tree, "expanding from the whole into the parts," to use Schiller's expression, and constantly branching out into increasing complexity, multiplicity, and variety. Variety, indeed, appears to be Variety sought in nature as an end, for its own sake. Vital develop- appears to ment, in ascending from one grade to another, ascends not pose in in one straight line but in diverging lines: so that the highest forms of a comparatively low type-in other words, the highest species of a comparatively low classmay be more highly organized than the lower forms of a higher type: just as the highest twigs of a low branch may be higher than the lower twigs of a higher branch. Thus, animals are on the whole much more highly organized Illustrathan vegetables, but animals have not been developed out tions of of vegetables: they have been both developed out of organic originally vitalized matter, which contained potentially the germs of both. This, it is true, is not proved, though everything tends to prove it. But, independently of any theory of evolution, it is certain that the lowest animals and the lowest vegetables do not greatly differ: and that the difference increases as we trace them higher in their respective scales. This is an instance of a law which is general throughout the organic world, that groups which are in any degree akin are united to each other rather by their lower than by their higher members. The true form

1 This idea of a series of sciences is taken from Comte's "Positive Philosophy." For the same series in a more detailed form see "Habit and Intelligence," vol. ii. p. 208.

this in

classifica

tion.

Different kinds of excellence are in

of all organic classification is that of a tree, having many summits though of unequal height. Thus, in the animal kingdom the three highest classes, developed along three distinct lines of descent or rather ascent, are the Articulata, culminating in the winged insects; the Mollusca, culminating in the Cephalopods (cuttle-fish and nautilus); and the Vertebrata, culminating in Man. Among all these, Man is by far the highest species, and the Vertebrate is the highest type: yet, according to the great comparative physiologist Von Bär,1 a bee, which is one of the highest of the Articulata, is more highly organized than a fish, which belongs to the lowest class of Vertebrates.

In speaking of variety as an end in nature, we ought to remark that it appears to be in many cases, if not generally, impossible for different kinds of excellence to be produced degree in together. Thus, a plant cannot attain at the same time to the greatest productiveness of both leaves and flowers.

some

compatible.

Each

member of the series is dependent on the

preceding

one.

We have seen that there is in nature a scale, or series, of decreasing generality and increasing complexity and variety. We now go on to speak of a different set of relations between the members of the series.

Each member of the series is dependent on the one which goes before it (that is to say, on the one which is simpler and more general than itself), but independent of that which comes after it. Mind is dependent on animal or nervous life, without which it cannot exist: animal life depends on vegetative or nutritive life and all life depends on matter. The chemical, electrical, and thermal properties of matter depend on the general laws of force, and could not be stated in language without implying those laws: and the laws of force cannot be stated without implying those of space: -thus, for instance, it would be impossible to state the law of the parallelogram of forces unless the properties of the parallelogram were taken as known. But, as we have seen, this dependence is not reciprocal. Space and time may exist independently of matter and motion; the 1 Quoted in Darwin's “Origin of Species," 4th edition, p. 404.

laws of force and the mechanical properties of matter do not imply chemical laws: matter may exist without life: vegetative life may exist without animal or sentient life, and sentient life may exist, and apparently does exist in entire classes of animals, without developing into consciousness or mind.

From this point of view the series may be compared to a building of many stories, each dependent for support on that below it, and each independent of that above it.

organic

works

We have seen that the relation of dependence of one group of properties, or one function, on another, obtains both in inorganic matter and in life. But when we come to vital functions, we find a different though parallel relation, unlike any in the inorganic world: that is to say, In the the subordination of one function to another; the higher world one function working through the lower, and the lower function ministering to the higher. Thus the mind uses the through body as its instrument, or rather as its organ:-the mind another. works through the animal system, or in other words through the nervous and muscular life. The animal life works through, and by means of, the nutritive life, which supplies it with the energy that is to be transformed in muscular, and doubtless also in nervous action:1 and the nutritive system works through the chemical forces, not neutralizing them, not setting them aside or suspending their operation, but controlling them and causing them to produce results in assimilation, secretion, and other transformations of matter within the organism which they could not have effected without the dominating agency of life.2

tion of the

The physical and chemical forces are immensely more Illustrapowerful than the vital ones, though the vital forces are engine and able to control and guide the chemical. This truth may its driver. be illustrated by the relation of the engine-driver to the engine which he is able to guide, though the steam power of the engine is incomparably greater than the muscular power of the man.

1 See the chapter in "Habit and Intelligence" on the Dynamics of Life (Chapter 9).

2 On this entire subject, see "Habit and Intelligence," Chapter 13 (Organic Subordination) and Chapter 43 (the Classification of the Sciences).