Because, second, to preserve the confidence of the community in the profession, cach member must be qualified for the higher demands now made upon it. When society perceives that the great number are but slightly educated, how soon will the lawyer fall into disrepute. He will be only the object of the sneer of the cynic and the laugh of the wit. He will be thrown from his position of leader, and no longer sought after, respected, or followed.

Because, third, his mistakes are freighted with greater possibilities of injury. When business transactions are nothing more than an occasional barter of a chattel, or a simple contract for labor, a mistake works but little injury, and only to a few. But when they involve the great railroad and commercial dealings, so common to-day, a mistake may be fruitful of large and widespread ruin. So the responsibilities which rest upon us are greater than ever before, and we must rise to the level of those responsibilities, or both we and the society we attempt to lead will suffer.

Because, fourth, society each day of its advancing civilization needs and demands a wiser leadership. The welfare of humanity rests not on what has been accomplished, but on the steps forward which it takes. If those steps are wisely advised and prudently taken, then we may confidently look for the coming in of the day of which poets have sung, and which prophets have foretold, when peace and righteousness shall fill the earth. While, on the other hand, if illy advised and rashly taken, progress ceases and society resolves itself again into the anarchy and chaos from which it has so slowly arisen. It has often been said that a community is no better than its leaders, and while there may be temporary exceptions, that is certainly the general rule. So if we would have a steady advance in social order we must have an equally constant advance in the character and accomplishments of the lawyers, its leaders.

I know that mere education is not all-sufficient. There must be a man to be cdncated. It is an old saying that you can not make a silk purse out of the caudal' appendage of the female swine. No more will any amount of study and training pour legal lore into some craniums or give that rare and blessed gift, common sense. Still that does not prove that there is no need of education. Henry Ward Beecher once said that dress does not make the man, but when the man is made he looks a great deal better dressed up. So while mere study will not supply the lack of legal capacity, given one capable of becoming a lawyer, and a thorough education will place him in the front.

The strength of an army is not in its numbers, but in its discipline and training. Cortez, with a handful, rode through thousands of opposing Mexicans and entered the capital city in triumph. Japan's disciplined troops saw scarcely anything else than the backs of the flecing Chinese, and the most numerous people on the face of the earth were conquered within a few weeks. So it is with our profession. Its power lies not in the mere number of its members, but in their learning and capacity. A single true and noble lawyer is strength and glory, while a thousand pettifoggers are weakness and shame. In our late war, with its millions of volunteer soldiers, who became the victorious leaders? The trained students of military science. Their education had fitted them to lead. The great movements of civilized society upward are struggles, though not wars. Who can lead in those movements? Mainly the trained lawyers, they whose long study of human rights and obligations enables them to place before each individual the limits of action, and to guide into paths of life and conduct, which are ways of pleasantness and paths of peace, and so the paths through which civilization moves on and up.

It may be objected that if the course of study is extended and the conditions of admission to the bar increased a great many will be deterred from entering the profession. A perfect answer is that a great many ought to be deterred. A growing multitude is crowding in who are not fit to be lawyers, who disgrace the profession after they are in it, who in a scramble after a livelihood are debasing the noblest of professions into the meanest of avocations, who instead of being leaders and looked up to for advice and guidance, are despised as the hangers-on of police courts and the nibblers after crumbs which a dog ought to be ashamed to touch. Even of those who would love to keep up the dignity of the profession many find no adequate compensation from the practice, and so mingle with it dealing in insurance, real estate, and kindred matters, to eke out the living the law does not furnish. It would be a blessing to the profession, and to the community as well, if some Noachian deluge would engulf half of those who have a license to practice. Webster's reply to the question whether the profession was not crowded was that the first story was full, but that there was plenty of room in the second. We should see to it that there be no first story, and that only second-story lawyers be found on our rolls.

It is said that some of the noblest of our members would be shut out from the law and turned into other pursuits. If a four years' course of study had been required would Abraham Lincoln have become a lawyer? My reply is two-fold. First, seldom would any one capable of becoming a hero of the bar be turned away. Obstacles only stimulate the efforts of such men. They work their way up in spite of all

difficulties. They glory in their ability to overcome all opposition. Secondly, if perchance someone worthy of a place on our rolls should be kept away there will be plenty left. The general level of professional standing should not be lowered for fear some single chieftain is never found.

Finally, it is objected that the high standard should not be insisted upon, because in our hamlets and smaller villages there is room for very ordinary lawyers. This is a mistake. There is no place anywhere on the face of the earth for a cheap lawyer. It is true that in a village there may be but little business, true that many transactions are of such a simple character that a limited knowledge of the law will guide one safely through them; but it is also true that the relations between the villages and the great business cities are becoming more and more intimate, and are such that often the highest legal lore is required to properly advise the dwellers in the former as to their rights, duties, and liabilities, and so the lawyer in the village must be qualified to meet the lawyer in the city on equal terms. Further, he will represent the village in the legislature, and he should be able to make that village a power in the legislation of the State. There should be a general lifting up of the profession, so that all its members everywhere be recognized as leaders.

The final peace of the world will be wrought out through our profession. I know the poet sings of the day

When the war drum throbs no longer and the battle flags are furled

In the parliament of man, the federation of the world.

But the poet is mistaken. The legislator will not bring the day of universal peace. There will never be one great parliament, one federal republic embracing all races and ruling the world. The law of race individuality, with its consequent differences and antagonisms, can not be overcome. Gaul and Teuton, Slav and Saxon will never become one people. Blood is thicker than water. Because individuals of these varied races come to this new land of ours, and dwelling as neighbors are slowly moving toward one homogeneous people, it does not follow that the law of race will ever be forgotten or ignored in the native land. The vision of one great nation with a single parliament is only a poet's dream. But the lawyer will work out the final peace and bring in the glad day when the spear shall be turned into a plowshare and the sword into a pruning hook, and nations shall learn war no more. In each separate nation as it advances in civilization more and more are differences settled and rights adjusted by the lawyer and the judge, rather than by the pistol and bowie knife; so, as the world advances in civilization, will differences between nations be in like manner settled. Arbitrations are growing in favor, and international courts will soon be a part of the common life of the world. I know the time may seem far distant when any such court shall come into existence. It will be witness to a great advance in civilization, and yet within the last fortnight I have seen it stated in the papers that the French Assembly has unanimously passed a resolution looking to the establishment of some tribunal of arbitration to settle all differences that may in the future arise between that nation and this country. The world is becoming familiar with international arbitrations and the settlement of disputes thereby; and every successful arbitration is but a harbinger of the day when all disputes between nations shall be settled in courts of peace and not by the roar of cannon and waste of blood.

When in youth I studied the structure of our Government, I looked with awe and reverence upon the Supreme Court of the United States, a tribunal taking no cognizance of the minor disputes between individuals within the several States, but sitting in judgment upon the weightier controversies between States and citizens thereof, and determining the rights and liabilities of States to each other and to citizens. I thought of the solemn sense of responsibility which must rest upon each justice thereof as he came to the decision of every case. The years have brought me to a place on that bench. With a profounder reverence and a personal sense of responsibility I now look upon that court and its work, and I would that every judgment it pronounces should be wrought out with such wisdom as through the long stretch of coming years to stand the supremest test.

Does it tell of the coming on of second childhood, or is it proof of a growing confidence in man and his capacity for self-control that I now look with the full assurance of faith to the dawning of a day when some great international court shall come into being, whose judgments, touching no questions between individuals, shall determine all controversies between nations, and by such determinations bid the world's farewell to the soldier? But by whom shall such a tribunal be established, and who is to sit therein and render the judgments which shall command such confidence and respect that willing obedience thereto be yielded by all? Out of the rich brain of our profession shall be wrought the form and structure of that court, its fashion and its glory, and the lawyers shall be the judges thereof.

So believing, let us all strive to lift the standard of professional character and acquirements so that no one shall ever think of challenging our place in the front.

CHAPTER XXIX.

MEDICAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES.1

The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1892-93 (pp. 601-613) contains a summary of a report on medical education in the United States by Dr. Marcel Baudouin, delegate from the French Government to the Chicago Exposition and specially commissioned to study the system of medical instruction, conditions of professional life, etc., in our country. Dr. Baudouin visited the chief medical schools, hospitals, etc., of the country, and his report contains, in addition to the summary referred to, extended descriptions of individual institutions. To reproduce these in full would require more space than can be allowed for the subject, but it seems desirable to present at least extracts relating to typical schools and in a few instances even to give in full Dr. Baudouin's account of individual institutions.

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY.

"Of this university for higher scientific education," says Dr. Baudouin, “it is necessary to give more than simple mention. Here, however, I can only describe its magnificent institute of physics, the largest in the United States, directed by Prof. Henry A. Rowland; its chemical laboratories, which Prof. Ira Remsen courteously showed me, and its geological collections (so important ordinarily in all the large American universities on account of the development given to studies relative to the mineral wealth of an almost virgin soil). Apparently the chief purpose of this university is the training of engineers (mining, mechanical, etc.), and specialists in chemistry, but it is also celebrated for the works of pure science which come from its laboratories. Here are to be found men of undoubted ability; here are illustrious mathematicians, savants of the highest order, whom rival universities seek as professors. This is, in fact, one of the principal centers of higher education in North America and would well repay close study. It differs essentially from our French faculties and also from the German universities.

"In 1889 the Medical Weekly stated that the medical department of Johns Hopkins University, announced prematurely, was not in actual operation, but I was informed that the medical faculty of the famous university of Baltimore would open its doors in October, 1893. This department will, without doubt, have the same importance as the other faculties of this institution, and has promise of a brilliant future. In the hospital I am about to describe this school will possess fine appointments, and since the cultivation of pure science is not neglected in this intellectual center it can not fail to draw the most distinguished professors to its circle. Those men who have already taken the course of study at the hospital and who will certainly form a part of the personnel of its future faculty are men well known in the intellectual world.

JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL.

"This hospital is as well known in the medical as is the university of the same name in the scientific world, but, judging from its register, few Frenchmen have visited it. I know of only one hospital in Europe, the Urban Spital at Berlin, that can at all compare with this one founded by Johns Hopkins. Our French hospitals are built on a very different plan, which their antiquity readily explains. Those that have been recently constructed, whether at Paris or in the provinces, may be as good and as interesting as the two mentioned, but certainly they do not compare with them either in extent or in perfect hygienic resources, or in the perfect, harmonious arrangement of all the parts. One who has not seen these two hospitals (which, be it said, admit only 300 or 400 patients, while Tenon at Paris admits double

From report of Dr. Marcel Baudouin, delegate from the French Government to the Chicago Exposition.

that number) can not form an idea of the results which may be attained at this age of the world in the construction of a great hospital when the resources are unlimited. "The Johns Hopkins Hospital, like the university, was built from funds left by Johns Hopkins, a merchant of Baltimore. Many plans for this institute were submitted to the executive committee, both by physicians and architects, but that accepted is due to Dr. John S. Billings, whose name I have already had occasion to mention. In order to perfect his designs Dr. Billings spent several years in Europe, and visited the principal hospitals of France and Germany. From these studies resulted plans so admirable that they were adopted without opposition. The immense buildings intended for those attacked by acute diseases are situated on a point of land elevated above the city. They comprise numerous separate pavilions divided into three grand sections-medicine, surgery, and gynecology. There is no section of accouchement. These departments are each under a physician in chief. The hospital is free to patients resident of Baltimore and its environs, and to those victims of accidents who are natives of Maryland. There are also separate pay wards for men and for women, and common wards where all patients may be admitted who are not able to pay the usual charges of $5 a week.

"There are also laboratories of bacteriology and pathologic anatomy admirably equipped (pertaining to the school of medicine), an excellent dispensary, and a training school for nurses with a nurses' home.

I do not intend to give here a full description of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, which was finished only in 1889, nor to enter into all the details of its work. Those who desire more particular technical information will read with greater profit the magnificent publication of Dr. Billings. I prefer to dwell only on such parts as I have seen myself, and of which my report will naturally be shorter and less minute.

"The wards.-My first visit was to the surgical department, which occupies a separate and finely appointed division. As I have said before, the wards are small and accommodate each only about a dozen beds. The largest ward is circular, or, rather, octagonal, a form which more than any other facilitates a constant watch on the patients.

"I noticed here portable screens of pine wood which are used to separate the beds of the patients during an operation or while a painful wound is dressed. Sometimes three of these screens are used, forming a sort of box, and thus much agony is kept from the sight of the patients. Some surgical operations which I witnessed interested me much, two in particular. A large aneurism of the aorta, and especially an operation at which, in the course of a hysterectomy, the ureter was cut, and at which Dr. Howard A. Kelly, professor of gynecology, successfully effected a suture of that conduit by means of a lateral anastomosis.

"Certain usages which I had never seen in Europe surprised me; for instance, the custom of taking the temperature in the mouth by means of a very convenient little thermometer. This instrument is placed in the buccal cavity, and the lips of the patient tightly closed for a few moments. In this way results are obtained comparable to those obtained by taking the temperature at the rectum and vagina. This method is a little less exact; as it is rapid it is employed in ordinary cases or where time presses. When the malady is serious recourse is had to the rectal temperature. Contagion is easily avoided by washing these little instruments in antiseptics. The wards for the sick deserve more than passing mention, but I can only touch upon their irreproachable cleanliness, upon the care with which all hygienic precautions are observed, upon the use of the telephone, the little libraries, the flowering plants, the aquariums, and the cages of birds. I must emphasize the importance and regularity of the services rendered by the American nurses who occupy the same position as the 'infirmières' and 'surveillants' of our own hospitals.

"The nurses.-There are 60 nurses at Johns Hopkins Hospital, whose shining white uniforms, delicate manners, good nature, respect for the sick, and professional knowledge aroused in me a most lively interest. If the reader will bear in mind that I am a member of the corps of instruction in a training school for nurses connected with a similar hospital in Paris he will easily comprehend how painful were the comparisons which were forced upon me.

"The comparison that I made between the uncertain remuneration of French lay nurses and the liberal salaries received by American nurses, especially those of Johns Hopkins Hospital, and also between the intellectual culture of the two, is not favorable to the French.

"The Nurses' Home of Johns Hopkins Hospital is superb, in reality a little hotel, almost a palace, whose soft carpets and white marble staircase are in strong contrast with the ragged straw matting and wooden ladders of the dormitories of the Pitié or of the Salpêtrière. This building is four stories high. The basement contains a dining room which will accommodate 40 persons, a pantry, four storerooms, a study hall, a lecture room, bathrooms, water-closets, and an elevator, besides a kitchen where the nurses have practical lessons in cookery.

"The first story opens from a large hall on a terraced walk. It contains a parlor