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even surface, more valleys with sloping sides, by many times more streams, and such a climate that our farms suffer much oftener from drought than farms in England. May we not learn something useful, therefore, from the examples of irrigation in that country?

With respect to implements of husbandry, Mr. Webster was of opinion that the English, on the whole, had no advantage over us. Their wagons and carts were no better; their ploughs, he thought, were not better any where, and in some counties far inferior, because unnecessarily heavy. The subsoil plough, for which we have little use, was esteemed a useful invention; and the mole plough, which he had seen in operation, and the use of which was to make an under-ground drain, without disturbing the surface, was an ingenious contrivance, likely to be useful in clay soils, free from stone and gravel, but which could be little used in Massachusetts. In general, he thought the English utensils of husbandry were unnecessarily cumbrous and heavy. The ploughs, especially, required a great strength of draught. But as drill-husbandry was extensively practised in England, and very little with us, the various implements, or machines, for drill-sowing, in that country, quite surpass all we have. He did not remember to have seen the horse-rake used in England, although he had seen in operation implements for spreading hay, from the swarth, to dry, or rather, perhaps, for turning it, drawn by horses.

The raising of sheep, in England, is an immense interest. England probably clips fifty millions of fleeces this year, lambs under a year old not being shorn. The average yield may be six or seven pounds to a fleece. There are two principal classes of sheep in England, the long-wooled and the short-wooled. Among these are many varieties, but this is the general division, or classification. The Leicester and the South Down belong respectively to these several families. The common clip of the former may be estimated from seven to eight pounds; and of the latter, from three to three and

a half or four. Mr. Webster mentioned these particulars only as estimates; and much more accurate information might doubtless be obtained from many writers.

The Leicester sheep were like the short-horned cattle. They must be kept well; they should always be fat; and, pressed by good keeping to early maturity, they are found very profitable. Feed well' was the maxim of the great Roman farmer, Cato; and that short sentence comprises much of all that belongs to the profitable economy of live stock. The South Downs are a good breed, both for wool and mutton. They crop the grass that grows on the thin soils, over beds of chalk, in Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Dorsetshire. They ought not to scorn the pastures of New England.

When one looks, said Mr. Webster, to the condition of England, he must see of what immense importance is every, even the smallest, degree of improvement in its agricultural productions. Suppose, that by some new discovery, or some improved mode of culture, only one per cent. could be added to the annual results of English cultivation; this, of itself, would materially affect the comfortable subsistence of millions of human beings. It was often said that England was a garden. This was a strong metaphor. There was poor land, and some poor cultivation, in England. All people are not equally industrious, careful, and skilful. But, on the whole, England was a prodigy of agricultural wealth.

AMERICAN AGRICULTURE.

The system of husbandry prevailing in our country is much inferior to that in England and Scotland. The produce of virgin soils at the West is not only no proper measure of the character of our culture, but it has doubtless contributed to keep it in a depressed state. Instead of having recourse to better tillage, and a more enlightened plan of cropping, the farmer who finds his profits declining abandons his farm, and establishes himself in a new country. In this way our soils, in the eastern

part of the Union, have been gradually deteriorating, while those of England and Scotland have been improving. The same process is now going on in the Western States; and, unless the work of exhausting the soil is arrested, successive emigrations must take place, till our farming population reach the shores of the Pacific. The average produce of an acre of land in the eastern counties of New York, or in Massachusetts, is about one third less than it is in England. In many parts of Scotland, a country, which, forty years since, was little more than unbroken heath, the average annual produce is greater than in England. These countries owe their superiority in this respect, therefore, not to any natural advantages of soil or climate, but to a larger outlay of capital in manuring and draining, and to a more judicious system of rotation in crops. The proprietors of land, too, have not been infected with so great a dread of "book-farming," as has prevailed with us.

The history of the last few years, however, is full of encouragement. The old plan of fallowing is nearly abandoned. Our farmers are beginning to discover the value of manure. Fifteen years since, nothing was more common, in Winter, than to see farmers who resided on the Mohawk drawing the manure which had been accumulating, perhaps for years, and emptying it, through holes in the ice, into the river. It is now preserved, and applied to the fields. The use of plaster, too, has done much to ameliorate the soil, and some progress has been made (though much too little) towards a proper system of rotation and root culture. Wherever the spirit of improvement has been active, the results have been astonishing. The annual produce of Dutchess county, on the Hudson, has doubled, perhaps trebled, within twenty years. The price of land has advanced in a still greater ratio. Instances are adduced from various parts of the country, all showing that nothing is wanting but good husbandry, to make any of our soils fertile and profitable. For more detailed remarks on this important subject, I would refer to

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The Farmer's Companion,' by the late Judge Buel, which constitutes the sixteenth volume of 'THE SCHOOL LIBRARY.' Of this work Professor Dean, in his Sketch of the Life of Judge Buel, thus speaks: This is "the last and most perfect of his works, containing, within a small compass, the embodied results of his agricultural experience,—a rich legacy, to which the great extent of our farming interest cannot remain insensible." "I deem it really the most fortunate circumstance in his life, that he should have been permitted, so immediately previous to his departure, to furnish just this volume, for just this purpose; and I shall confidently expect, that the coming generation will be better farmers, better citizens, and better men, from having had the formation of their young minds influenced, to some extent, by the lessons of experience and practical wisdom derived from the last, best, most mature, production of this excellent

man."

VI. PAGES 188 AND 248.

IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD, CLOTHING, AND LODGING.

THERE is no better way of testing the real influence of improvements in the arts and sciences, than by considering how they have affected the great bulk of the people. While all classes have been vastly benefited, there can be no doubt, that they who labor with their hands have been the greatest gainers. These improvements have enabled multitudes of them to employ their talents in the most productive manner, and in that way, to advance themselves to the highest stations of wealth and influence. In this country, it is proverbial, that the rich and distinguished of the present generation are descended from those, who, two generations since, were poor, and without a name. It is not so generally known, that, to a great extent, the same fact may be alleged of Great Britain. "I believe," says Mr. Rickards, "it

may be safely added, that every one of the great fortunes and immense establishments, existing in the manufacturing districts, may be traced to the minute savings of common operatives, who, from the smallest of small beginnings, have, by prudence, skill, and unremitting perseverance and industry, raised themselves, with unexampled rapidity, to a pinnacle of wealth and importance, which, but for its existence, could scarcely be believed. This, then, is a state of society, with its institutions, essentially popular in its origin.'

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It is our object, however, in this place, to show what the mass of the people have gained, in respect to physical comfort. For this purpose we shall compare their past condition with their present, in respect to food, clothing, and lodging; making the comparison in regard to England, Scotland, and the United States.

I. ENGLAND.

1. In the Reign of Elizabeth.

[A. D. 1568-1603.] "The bread, throughout the land," says Harrison, who wrote in the reign of Elizabeth, "is made of such graine, as the soil yielded; neverthelesse, the gentilitie commonlie provide themselves sufficientlie of wheat for their owne tables, whilest their household and poore neighbours, in some shires, are inforced to content themselves with rie or barleie; yea, and in time of dearth, manie with bread made either of bran, peason, or otes, or of all together, and some acorns among; of which scourge the poorest doe soonest tast, sith they are least able to provide themselves of better. I will not saie that this extremitie is oft so well to be seene in time of plentie, as of dearth; but, if I should, I coulde easilie bring my triall."-Description of England.

Sir F. M. Eden, whose elaborate researches have thrown much light on this subject, truly states, that the substantiality of diet, for which the sixteenth century is renowned, was confined chiefly to the tables of per

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